Wilting might be the least useful symptom in the garden. It's how a plant says something is wrong, and that's about as specific as it gets. A tomato that's merely hot and a tomato with fungus clogging its plumbing look identical at three in the afternoon, which is exactly why so many gardeners water the second one until it dies faster.

Then again, gardening in a heat wave means treating a certain amount of afternoon flop as ordinary. Leaves droop because the plant has closed its stomata and quit transpiring until conditions improve, so the sag is a defense, not a distress call. The question worth answering isn't whether a plant wilts. It's whether it comes back.

Start with the Sunset Test

Go back out at dusk, or first thing the next morning, and look at the same plant. Heat stress lets go once the sun is off it. Roots catch up with what the leaves lost, turgor returns, and something that looked finished in the afternoon is standing there come nighttime like nothing happened. That's the entire test, and it costs nothing. Give it a full hour past sundown before drawing any conclusion, since dry soil slows recovery even in a healthy plant.

A plant still slumped at sunrise, after twelve hours of cool air and no sun at all, has a problem that has nothing to do with weather. The in-between case matters too. A plant that bounces back a little less each morning is on a slow slide, and the pattern shows up over three or four days rather than in a single look. Take a photo each morning if the difference is too subtle to hold in your head.

Wilting in Wet Soil Is a Contradiction

Soggy ground and a drooping plant should not go together, and when they do, the roots are the story. Root rot organisms – mainly Phytophthora and Pythium species – thrive in saturated soil and destroy the fine feeder roots that do the actual drinking. What's left can't pull water even while sitting in it. The wilt looks like drought because, from the plant's side, it is drought. An XLUX long-probe soil moisture meter from Amazon settles the question in seconds at root depth, where a finger can't reach.

Confirming it means getting your hands dirty. Scrape back the soil at the base and pull a few roots. Healthy roots are firm and pale, and they snap. Rotted roots turn brown or gray, go soft, and the outer layer slides off between your fingers and leaves a bare thread behind. That smell of stagnant pond water is the other giveaway. Container plants sitting in saucers are the usual victims, though heavy clay after a wet stretch does the same job. Peppers and squash collapse within days once it takes hold, while shrubs can carry the damage quietly for a season.

One Branch, One Side, One Piece

Vascular wilts operate differently, and they're the ones that earn the word sinister. Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum live in the soil, enter through the roots, and grow upward inside the xylem – the plumbing itself. The plant fights back by plugging infected vessels with gums and tyloses, and in doing so it seals off the pipes it needs. Water stops moving. The leaves get the message before the rest of the plant does.

Asymmetry is the tell. Heat hits the whole plant at once, while a vascular wilt starts with a single branch and leaves everything around it looking fine for days. Sometimes the split is narrower – half a stem, or one wedge of a leaf going yellow while the rest of it stays green. Yellowing that climbs from the bottom and then stalls halfway counts too. Fusarium tends to move in hot weather and Verticillium in milder spells, though both settle into the soil for years once they arrive. The same bed keeps producing the same sad tomato.

Cut the Stem and Look

There's a diagnostic that beats guessing. Slice through a wilted stem a few inches above the soil line with a hand pruner like this from Home Depot, then look at the cut face. Cream-colored tissue all the way around points back at heat or a watering problem. Brown or tan streaking in the ring just under the bark is vascular disease, and no amount of water fixes that.

Wipe the blades down with 70% isopropyl alcohol (you can get it from Walmart) before touching another plant, since pruners carry these fungi from one stem to the next easily. Neither wilt has a cure once it's in a plant. Pull it, bag it, and keep it out of the compost, then put something unrelated in that spot for a few years – corn, beans, and grasses shrug both of them off. Resistant varieties exist for tomatoes, and the letters on the tag earn their keep here. A “V” stands for Verticillium and an “F” for Fusarium. Until then, the plant tells you which one it is by sundown – every time, for free.

As summer temperatures soar, so does the risk of heat stress in our plants. Our first instinct when we see our beloved hydrangea or hosta start to wilt and turn brown is to drench it with cold water in an attempt to perk it up. But overwatering heat-stressed plants can actually do more harm than good.

When daytime temperatures climb above 85°F, our plants can start to show signs of heat stress. They may begin to wilt, droop, and leaves can even show signs of sunburn. Plants that experience heat stress are more susceptible to pests and diseases, so it’s important to treat this problem fast before it spirals into other issues.

The first step is identifying whether or not your plant has heat stress (or if it just needs a drink). Then it’s time to take action and save your heat-stressed plant without overwatering it and causing a whole different set of problems.

What Is Heat Stress?

Heat stress in plants occurs when temperatures rise above 85°F. The ideal growing conditions for most plants are between 60° and 85°F. So when temperatures reach above that and into the 90° to 100°F and above range, heat stress is a real concern.

Plants that are suffering from heat stress droop, look wilted, may show signs of sunburn, and can become stunted. Sunburn can occur on leaves or stems of plants. It looks like light-colored or discolored splotches on the foliage of your plant and is caused by excessive exposure to bright sun.

How to Save Heat-Stressed Plants

If you notice signs of heat stress in your plants while gardening during a heatwave, don’t worry. There are a few simple steps you can take to save plants before it’s too late. But don’t rush out there with the hose just yet, because overwatering heat-stressed plants can actually make the problem worse. Here’s what to do instead.

1. Check Your Soil Moisture

Before drowning your plants with a big drink of water, it’s best to check the moisture level of your soil first. You can use the finger test to do this. Simply stick a finger about 1 inch (2.5 cm) into the soil to see if it feels moist. If it does, then a lack of water is not the problem. If it doesn’t, then it’s probably time to give your garden a drink.

Another foolproof method is to use a soil moisture meter, like this one from Amazon. This type of device tells you exactly how much moisture is in your soil and whether or not your plant really needs more water or not.

The best time to water plants is in the morning, but if your plants are wilting and their soil is dry then you can water them at the base of the plant.

2. Add Mulch

Whether your plant needs more water or not, it’s a good idea to add some mulch around your heat-stressed plants regardless. A layer of an organic mulch, which you can order on Amazon, holds in moisture and keeps plant roots cool.

When temperatures are very high, the soil heats up just like the air and this causes roots to heat up as well. This can cause heat stress in plants, but a layer of mulch helps lower the temperature and adds organic material and nutrients back into the soil as it breaks down over time.

3. Provide Sun Protection

If you notice sunburn or sunscald on your plants, then it’s time to provide some shade. A simple shade cloth, like this one from Amazon, can help protect plants the way sunscreen protects gardeners from the scorching summer rays.

Creating shade for plants will protect foliage from burning and it will also help keep plants cool. Think about how refreshing it feels to step under the shade of a big oak tree on a hot summer day. Give your heat-stressed plants some respite from the blazing sun with a shade cloth.

If you grow plants in containers simply move them to a shadier part of your yard during the hottest part of the day. A covered patio is the perfect spot. You can use a rolling plant caddy, like this one from Amazon, to make moving large planters easier.

4. Stop Fertilizing

You may think that giving plants a boost of their favorite food will help them come out of heat stress stronger, but just the opposite is true. Fertilizer forces plants to push out new growth, which can stress them further. It can also cause sunburn on plant foliage, so fertilizing in hot weather is a bad idea all around.

Instead, if your plants are showing signs of heat stress, immediately stop feeding them. Let them rest and recover before adding more nutrients to the soil again.

5. Remove Ripening Fruits & Faded Flowers

If the plants in your vegetable garden have heat stress, then it may be time for an early harvest. Edible plants work hard to send their energy towards developing fruits and vegetables. But this can be at the expense of their own health and vitality.

If you want your plants to keep producing fruits and veggies for the rest of the summer, you can harvest the produce that’s ripening now to give them a break and let them rest before they send out the next round of fruit.

The same principle applies for flowers. If you leave faded flowers on your plants, they will work to send energy towards producing viable seeds in the spent blooms to reproduce. Deadhead flowers that are done blooming to let heat-stressed plants focus on staying alive rather than producing seeds.

Walk past your garden beds on a winter morning and you might notice plants that were snug in the soil last fall are now sitting an inch or two higher, their crowns exposed, roots visible. This isn't your imagination—it's frost heave, and it can kill perennials if you don't fix it.

Frost heave happens when repeated freezing and thawing cycles push plants right out of the ground, exposing roots to cold and wind—catch it early by checking for lifted crowns and mounded mulch, then gently backfill with soil and add protective mulch to save your perennials.

Frost heave shows up most often after those back-and-forth temperature swings that create the perfect conditions. Preventing frost heave in your garden starts with understanding what causes it.

Why Are My Plants Popping Out of the Ground?

Water in soil freezes and expands, which pushes everything upward—soil, plants, roots. Then temps warm up, things thaw and settle. The next cold snap freezes another layer, creating what's basically an ice lens under your plants. This happens over and over, uprooting plants a little higher each time.

The real damage happens when roots break or get fully exposed. Broken roots can't take up water or nutrients. Exposed roots dry out in the winter wind and freeze solid. The plant's crown sits there naked instead of protected by soil. Most perennials won't survive this for long.

Spot Frost Heave Early

Check your beds when temperatures fluctuate. Look for plants that seem taller than they should be, or mulch that's mounded up instead of flat. Pull back mulch and look at the crown—if you can see the top of the root system or there's a gap between crown and soil, that's frost heave.

Shallow-rooted perennials show it first. Coral bells, strawberries, mums, blanket flowers—they have roots that don't go deep, so they lift easily. Anything planted late fall is vulnerable too since roots haven't had time to anchor. Check low spots in your garden, since these hold more moisture and get hit harder by freeze-thaw cycles.

How to Replant Heaved Perennials Safely

Don't try jamming the plant back down into frozen soil. That compresses and damages roots. Instead, wait for a day when soil isn't frozen solid. Remove mulch carefully from around the plant. Add loose soil around the exposed roots and crown—just gently pat it enough to fill gaps and cover roots.

If the plant is leaning or loose, you might need to support it temporarily. These bamboo stakes from Amazon work well. Don't pull the plant tight against the stake; give it some slack. The goal is stability, not rigidity.

Dealing With Severe Cases

Sometimes plants are too far gone to fix midwinter. If roots are completely out of the ground and dried out, or the plant's flopping sideways, cover exposed roots with soil and mark the spot for spring. Pile on three to four inches (8-10cm) of mulch—heavier wood chips work better than straw.

These plants probably won't make it through winter, but at least the roots stay protected until you can dig them up in spring and replant at the right depth.

Mulching to Prevent Further Damage

Once you've fixed heaved plants, add a few inches of mulch to prevent it happening again. This recycled hardwood mulch from the Home Depot, shredded leaves, or pine needles all work for insulating soil and preventing heave.

Don't pile mulch directly on plant crowns though. Leave an inch or two of space around stems. Mulch sitting against crowns traps moisture and causes rot. The weight of mulch also helps keep from heaving as much.

Why This Keeps Happening

Clay and loam soils hold tons of moisture, which means more water available to freeze and expand. Sandy soil drains better and heaves less. If your beds keep having heave problems, working compost into soil improves drainage and reduces the issue.

Late planting causes heave too. Perennials need at least six weeks before first frost to establish roots. Plant in late September and roots don't have time to anchor before freeze-thaw cycles start.

How to Fix Frost Heave Long-Term

Spring planting gives perennials a full growing season to develop deep root systems that resist heaving. If you plant in fall, stick to early fall—late August or early September. Any later and you’ll need to baby plants through winter with heavy mulch and checks.

Improve drainage in problem areas. Raised beds heave less than low-lying spots. Working compost into clay soil helps water drain instead of sitting there ready to freeze. Choose deeper-rooted perennials for heave-prone areas. Peonies, daylilies, and hostas establish stronger root systems.

Check your beds regularly through winter. Catching heave early means you can fix it before roots die. A quick walk through the garden every few weeks during freeze-thaw weather saves plants.

In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind does more than moan; in fact, all it takes is one snap of freezing weather to undo an entire season of work in your garden. Even if the days still feel mild, those overnight dips can creep up quickly, which is why it’s important to prioritise those garden tasks you have to do before the first frost hits.

Yes, to make sure your garden wakes up healthy next spring rather than frostbitten and lifeless, you need to pay extra special attention to all of those beds, bulbs, and containers at risk. Which means, yes, there’s three very important tasks to add to your fall garden guide.

None of these jobs take very long, and all are happily simple to do, too. Still, skip them and you may find yourself mourning cracked pots, mushy tubers, or struggling perennials come springtime… and nobody wants that, do they?

1. Mulch While the Soil Is Still Warm

Mulching isn’t just for looks; it’s one of the simplest ways to winterize plants all season long (think of it as a warm blanket for your soil). Take care to mulch perennial plants for winter, then, by spreading 2-4 inches of shredded leaves, pine straw, compost, or Amazon's Premium Brown Wood Mulch around their bases before the ground freezes.

Doing this garden task before the first frost helps regulate soil temperature, reduce water loss, and protect roots from freeze-thaw cycles. In colder USDA Hardiness Zones (3–6), aim for the thicker end of that range for extra insulation.

It’s also worth doing the same around your shrubs and trees, too, if you can. Just take care not to pile mulch directly against stems or trunks, as this can cause rot; instead, leave a slight gap around the base so air can circulate.

2. Lift Tender Plants and Bulbs

Gladiolus bulbs and dahlia tubers simply won’t survive freezing ground – and the same goes for cannas, elephant ears, and geraniums, which are not frost-hardy in most of the country.

If you’re in USDA Zones 3–7, then, make time to dig up tender bulbs and tubers before the first hard frost. Shake off excess soil and let them dry for a few days, before packing them in newspaper and storing them in a cool, dark place like your basement or garage.

In USDA Zones 8–10? While you can leave tender plants in the ground, take care to cover them with mulch or something like Amazon’s SnugNiture Plant Covers Freeze Protection when temperatures dip into the low 30s.

If you grow tender plants in containers (such as tender geraniums), the solution is simple: move them indoors to a sunny spot, or pop them somewhere that’s more sheltered, like an enclosed porch.

3. Clean and Store Your Pots Before They Crack

Terracotta, ceramic, and even some concrete pots may look sturdy, but once water gets inside and freezes, they can crack or crumble. It’s heartbreaking to lose a favorite planter from your container garden, especially when it’s preventable, so prepping yours is one of the garden tasks you have to do before the first frost hits.

It’s simple enough; just empty your unused plant pots and gently scrub away any remaining soil or mineral buildup, before letting them dry out completely. Moisture is the enemy here, people!

Then, store them somewhere protected from repeated freeze-thaw cycles (a shed, garage, covered porch, or even stacked under a workbench will do) or, if there are no other options, try turning them upside down on wood or bricks to keep them off cold ground and prevent water from collecting inside.

If your pots have plants in them, try clustering them together in a sheltered spot for added protection. If bringing them indoors isn't an option and things are set to get very nippy, you could also wrap them in burlap, bubble wrap, or one of Amazon's Plant Pot Covers for Winter Freeze Protection.

Spending one afternoon on these three garden tasks you have to do before the first frost hits can save you from a lot of disappointment come spring. It’s the difference between starting the season with thriving beds, ready-to-plant bulbs, and uncracked pots, or scrambling to replace everything you lost to one cold night.

So check your local frost date, grab your gloves, and treat it like a seasonal ritual. Your spring garden begins now.

The first frost date is the moment fall turns mean, when temperatures drop enough to ice out your plants. It’s the cutoff that decides what lives or dies in your garden, and missing it can leave your tomatoes or marigolds as sad, frozen mush.

This date is your garden’s cutoff, and pairing it with your last frost date helps you time planting and protection just right. Miss it, and you’re gambling with your whole harvest.

Every spot has got its own average first frost date, which is shaped by local weather patterns. Certain plants don’t mind a nip of frost, while others fold right away. Spinach can tough it out, typically, but cucumbers usually keel over at the very first cold snap. Knowing this lets you outsmart the cold and keep your beds thriving.

What Is a First Frost Date?

A first frost date is when the air in your area dips down 32°F (0°C) or lower, forming ice crystals that can zap tender plants. Your first frost date is not set in stone but it is an average pulled from years of weather records. Your first expected frost date might be late October, but a warm fall can nudge it to November.

Light frosts clip delicate crops like basil or beans. Hard frosts that go under 28°F (-2°C), knock out even the tougher ones like chard. Keep an eye on forecasts—still, clear nights will definitely make frost more likely, and knowing the difference helps you prioritize what to save first.

What is a frost versus a freeze? Freezes are generally longer than frosts. A frost can be an overnight cold snap where the air temperature dips below freezing, but warms up as the sun comes up. A freeze means the interior of the plant tissue has reached freezing or 32°F (0°C). Freeze damage can affect different plants in different ways, and annuals will be destroyed.

Where you live sets the timing. Seaside gardens might not frost until December, while northern yards get hit by September. Elevation matters too—hillside gardens chill faster than valleys. It’s your signal to wrap up summer crops and brace for winter.

Why First Frost Date Matters to Gardeners

The first frost date draws a hard line for gardeners. Tender plants like tomatoes or zucchini can’t take even a light frost—they’ll completely wilt or blacken overnight, and pinning down this date lets you pull ripe crops or cover them to squeeze out extra weeks.

It also shapes your planting plan. If frost hits mid-October, you won’t sow late beans that need 60 days to ripen. For perennials, it’s time to mulch roots before cold bites. I learned this unfortunate lesson when I lost a patch of peppers, for the first time, ignoring a frost alert once—big mistake. This Back to the Roots organic mulch from Amazon is what I use every year.

This date steers your whole season, from choosing seeds to timing tasks. It’s like knowing when the party ends so you can prep for plants like eggplants or roses that need extra care.

How to Find Out Your Local First Frost Date

Determining your first expected frost date is a cinch. Look for your area of the country on the National Weather Service website or USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map online for a solid estimate. Old Farmer’s Almanac lists average first frost dates by area. Double-check with weather apps, too. They will list frosts and freeze warnings in their forecasts in the fall.

Urban yards stay warmer than rural ones, so microclimates matter. A city garden might dodge frost a week longer than a farm. And chatting with nearby gardeners for the real low-down can reveal early freezes or late surprises that charts miss.

Garden Tasks Before First Frost

Frost on the horizon means action. It is time to winterize plants that will stay outdoors and move plants indoors that sensitive to cold. Harvest the last of your tomatoes and other veggies. You can ripen green tomatoes indoors just fine on your window sill. Snip fading flowers like cosmos or sunflowers to enjoy indoors. And don’t forget to dig up and store gladiolus bulbs or dahlia tubers.

Mulch perennial plants for winter with 2-4 inches (5-10 cm) of straw or shredded bark to shield roots. This A.M. Leonard bow rake from Amazon makes spreading mulch fast and easy. Give everything a good soak with water before a freeze or frost to toughen roots, especially for shrubs like hydrangeas.

Bring delicate potted plants indoors or into a shed. If you’re unsure what’s frost-hardy, assume it’s not and move quickly to avoid losing your favorites.

Extending the Season Past First Frost

Want to keep your garden going past the first frost date? You can cover your crops and delicate plants with old bedsheets or these row covers found on Amazon.

I like use cut-up milk jugs as DIY cloches for frost protection for small plants like lettuce. A cold frame can stretch harvests by a month for greens like arugula. You can build your own DIY cold frame easily in a weekend or purchase this sturdy, beautifully designed cold frame from Burpee that features a thermostatic opener that will automatically vent the cold frame if it gets too warm inside.

With a little planning, you will understand your first frost date and how to protect your garden as the seasons change. Plant rugged growers like kale and carrots ahead of time—they shrug off a nip of frost. Slide tender pots indoors where sun and airflow keep them happy. Make sure soil isn’t soggy, and water before evening to shield roots from cold blasts. Simple tricks like these help your garden push past fall.

A flooded garden causes so much damage to plants and soil. Believe me, I know. My gardens flooded back in 2013 and were under water for weeks on end. The issue was a lot of rain (of course) but also that the farmer’s land behind my homestead had just been ploughed over. The previously perennial, grassy field became loose, churned soil with a greatly reduced ability to hold and process water.

This experience started me on my journey into more weather-resilient ways to garden. Since then, I’ve been writing and teaching courses about how to create climate-resilient gardens that can withstand the extremes we often face in our gardens. Let me reveal what I did to shore up my defenses against flood damage in the garden and give you some insights about how to protect your plot from heavy spring rains.

1. Use No-Till Techniques

First and foremost, my garden flooding experience made me realize the importance of disturbing the soil as little as possible. No-till or no-dig gardening aids soil structure and the soil’s ability to better manage rainfall. It was a great illustration of how tilled soil is more vulnerable to the elements. Tilling soil also releases carbon into the atmosphere.

2. Cover the Ground

Be it perennial ground cover plants, green manures, winter crops, or one of my favorite free magic mulch materials, covering the ground increases soil’s ability to cope with weather extremes. These methods soak up water and help soil deal with a greater influx of early spring rain.

3. Slow It, Spread It, Sink It

Water needs to find a way, so follow the permaculture gardening principle of “Slow it, sink it, spread it.” What that means is it’s important to enable water to spread and move out of harm’s way in your garden. There are various ways to go about this. Here are just a few ideas:

Create a Swale

In my case, I have a bioswale, which is a ditch filled with plants that help soak up water and channel it out of the garden. This is a first line of defense for me in the area that’s most at risk of flooding. This area has a combination of trees, soft fruit bushes, willow, and long grass all mixed in as a sort of flood plain.

Use Porous Pathways

Permeable pavement and pathways enable water to sink down and away. That means that you can better access your garden without damaging it during the damp days of early spring or after those annual April showers. I have a combination of gravel pathways lined with porous weed membrane and stone paths lined with gravel to allow further rain absorption.

Consider Creating Rills

Rills are essentially small channels that redirect water runoff in the landscape and allow it to flow away. You could include a dipping pond so that the problematic water is then put to good use during hot weather when water becomes scarce.

4. Boost Rain Water Harvesting Efforts

Consider adding more water harvesters where you can. There are many different shapes and sizes nowadays to help maximize water collection. Even old bins or barrels can act as impromptu rain water collectors—it all helps.

There are many benefits of rain barrels besides just reducing flooding in the garden. One important benefit of rainwater vs. tap water for gardeners is that it’s better for plants. It doesn’t contain the chemicals cities use to treat tap water and it’s more pH balanced than tap water, so it won’t alter the pH in your garden soil.

5. Work Within Your Community

The more we can work together with our neighbors, the better prepared we will be to avoid the buildup of excess water. Concrete or hard standing areas don’t allow water to soak away and can be problematic when there is a risk of flash flooding. Try and determine what might be causing a flood in your area, then discuss ideas with those around you to help.

In my case, I spoke to my neighbor with the tilled field, showed him what happened, and asked respectfully that he maintain the land as grass for livestock grazing instead. Some summer veggies as a thank you helped seal the deal. Ultimately, it was beneficial to all concerned and my gardens haven’t flooded since.

Frequently Asked Questions

Grow a Successful Spring Garden

• Tick these to-dos off your spring garden checklist to give plants a strong start! Find out what you need to do for a successful garden.
• Discover the ultimate potted flowers for spring! These stunning bloomers will make containers shine all season long.

As gardeners, one of the biggest dangers we face with watering is the risk of killing our plants with kindness. Often, this is down to incorrect watering – and one of the main culprits is watering when we don’t need to – or absolutely shouldn’t. Knowing the worst time to water plants may seem counterintuitive – but it’s very reassuring to have a sense of those moments when it is best to do absolutely nothing at all!

We might reach for the watering can or hose when we ourselves are feeling like a cool drink, but those aren’t always the best times to water a veg garden, ornamental border, container display, or lawn. There is some debate among gardeners regarding when not to water plants, but there are certainly critical moments when you need to be mindful of increasing a plant’s chances of being exposed to infections, pests and a host of root and leaf problems. Here are some of the key times to keep in mind in order to keep your plants healthy and vigorous…

When is the Worst Time to Water Plants?

Mother Nature doesn’t always provide sufficient rainfall, particularly during the growing season. Having a sensible supplemental irrigation method is key. But when is watering the worst thing you can do?

Gardening needs for plants differ wildly, from expansive lawns to indoor containers. Care and caution are required, but some things hold true – and timing, as with so many other things, is key. So before giving your garden a drink, make sure you’re not watering at the worst times.

1. Mid-Day / Noon

Mid-day is the time of day when the sun reaches its zenith. By noon, the sun is at its highest point in the sky and temperatures are ramping. In the hours just after noon, heat levels on the ground will start to amplify, and this is of particular concern over the summer months. If you were wondering about the worst time to water plants in summer, this is certainly one of the least effective and potentially most damaging.

Watering around noon and mid-day is one of the big garden watering mistakes we tend to make, especially when the sun is beating down on us. We are tempted to think plants want what we want – a cool, refreshing drink! But if you water plants at midday, especially during the summer months, the water will rapidly dissipate. The heat will cause soil moisture to evaporate more quickly than the roots can uptake the water, leaving you with parched plants.

2. Late Evening

Late evening is a bone of contention amongst gardeners when arguing the worst time of day to water plants. Some say it’s fine to water in the evening, while others say no. Those who recommend watering in the evening believe it’s the best time to irrigate since temperatures have cooled and the sun is setting, thus the plants can uptake the water without evaporation.

However, the naysayers also have a point. They contend that late evening watering will open the plant up to fungal diseases, especially on stressed or damaged plants. If your plants are vigorous and healthy, you may well feel it’s worth the risk. However, another aspect to evening watering that is well worth pondering is that it may well invite more nighttime visits from garden slugs and snails!

3. Late Afternoon

As with the hours after noon, the late afternoon is not recommended as a great time to water plants as a general rule, particularly during summer months. The rate of evaporation is at its fastest rate for those few hours between noon and late afternoon – so clearly any possible benefits of watering will become less effective (and can be rendered null and void) almost immediately.

Another reason for not watering at this time of day is because any drops of water that might inadvertently have been splashed on leaves will trap the sun’s rays – and in hot periods, these rays can be magnified and cause leaf burn and sun damage. If you are keen to keep that foliage dry, be sure to water at the roots of the plant. Use a drip irrigation system or soaker hose, or hand-water at the base of the plant.

4. After Plants Have Wilted

Wilting can sometimes be an indicator of plant under-watering, this is true. Unfortunately, it can also be a sign of disease or pests – and it can even be a sign of over-watering in some cases! So unless you have checked moisture levels, and eliminated other possible causes for wilting, you need to proceed with caution. While wilting is a valuable visual, it isn’t always reliable as a barometer for irrigation.

Also, if you wait until your plants have wilted, your plants will be stressed. Stressed plants are more susceptible to disease, pests and environmental injury. Where at all possible, prevention is better than cure, so keep a close eye on plant appearance every day so you can intervene before things get too serious.

One good way to distinguish the leaves of under-watered plants as opposed to over-watered plants is to check the texture of foliage. While in both cases, leaves can change color (to yellow or brown), over-watered leaves will tend to be softer, while under-watered foliage tends to be crispy.

5. After Heavy Rain

When is the worst time to water plants? Probably after heavy rain. Now, you’d think this would be obvious, but sometimes (out of force of habit) people reach for the watering can or the hose merely hours after the garden’s already had a soak. It’s the worst thing you can do, as over-watering can encourage fungal infections, weakened roots, root rot and even root suffocation.

Another big no-no is watering the garden or your plants too soon after you’ve already done it yourself. Admittedly, you will need to crank things up a level over the summer months – but trust your gut. If you’re really not sure when plants are ready for a drink, don’t be afraid to test the moisture levels in the ground around plants with a finger. It should be dry to at least two knuckles deep before watering again.

You will need to adapt your watering needs for younger plants, plants that are flowering or fruiting, or plants in containers. Invest in a moisture-monitoring tool to test moisture levels if you need a little extra reassurance about timings.

Frequently Asked Questions

More Great Watering Ideas and Inspirations

• Worried about how to care for the watering needs of new plants in the weeks after you acquire them? Our guide to watering new plants helps you move forwards with confidence.
• Looking for the best watering strategy to kickstart growing for trees and shrubs? Find out how deep watering can benefit bigger plants – and save on water waste!
• Keen to cultivate plants in a way that is kinder to the planet? Our water wise tips help you explore water conservation at a local level while you nurture your garden.

With rising global temperatures and heatwaves becoming a common occurrence, gardeners face a growing challenge to mitigate the stress heat and drought place on plants.

Prolonged exposure to high temperatures above 85°F (29°C) can severely impact plant health, leading to wilting, leaf scorch, stunted growth, and even death. Recognizing and treating heat stress is crucial to maintaining a thriving garden during the hottest months.

In particular, knowing how to water gardens during heatwaves is key. This impacts heat-stressed lawns as well as ornamental plants.

Whether you're trying to preserve a lush backyard, nurture potted plants on a patio or balcony, or protect vegetables in hot weather, learning how to care for heat-stressed plants is vital to their survival.

Plant Heat-Stress Symptoms

When plants and flowers are struggling to cope with high temperatures, they will develop symptoms that indicate they are heat-stressed. Regularly check plants for these signs so that you can take action:

• Wilting of leaves and flowers may occur due to a lack of water, even if the soil is moist.
• Curling leaves is a response to excessive heat and water loss.
• Leaf scorch may be visible on leaves, which develop brown, dry edges or tips. This happens because the plant is losing water faster than it can be replenished.
• Yellowing leaves – particularly in the lower part of the plant – indicate a lack of moisture.
• Leaf drop is a stress response as the plant tries to minimize the level of water loss through transpiration. It is particularly common in trees.
• Flower and bud drop will also occur prematurely as the heat-stressed plant tries to conserve energy.
• Stunted growth may be prevalent in prolonged periods of heat and drought.
• Sunburn may appear on plants’ leaves, flowers, and fruits.
• Lack of fruit on vegetables is common, as heat-stressed crops struggle to produce.
• Blossom end rot is also common during hot weather, and is most prevalent in tomatoes, peppers, and squash.
• Pests and diseases are more likely to take hold as the plant is weakened.

How To Care For Plants In The Heat

Some plants, like succulents, are well equipped to handle heat by conserving water in their fleshy leaves. However, most plants do not have this capability and will suffer from the heat.

Heat stress occurs when a plant's rate of water loss through transpiration exceeds its ability to absorb water from the soil. This is exacerbated by inadequate watering and poor soil quality.

Follow these immediate and long-term care strategies to minimize heat stress. Plants may take time to recover, so continue providing consistent care and avoid major changes until they show signs of improvement.

1. Water Deeply – But Only When The Soil Is Dry

In general, when watering plants, do it deeply and infrequently so that they put their energy into sending roots down into the lower depths of the soil. During a period of drought, the roots are then able to access moisture reserves deeper in the soil.

If plants are watered too lightly, then the moisture only penetrates the top layer of soil, resulting in plants with shallow root systems.

During a heatwave, the water in the top inch of soil quickly evaporates, so heat-stressed plants also need deep watering.

How often to water plants in a heatwave depends on the species, and whether it is planted in a container or in the ground. Some plants will need watering once, even twice a day, while others will be fine for several days.

Even in periods of intense heat, it is possible to overwater plants. Rather than watering on a schedule, push your finger into the soil to check whether the top two inches are dry. If the soil is hard and compacted, then it is likely very dry. If you are unsure, invest in a moisture meter.

2. Don’t Water In The Middle Of The Day

Watering plants in the scorching midday heat is hard work for little reward. The water will quickly evaporate from the surface of the soil before it has had a chance to be absorbed by roots.

The best time to water plants is first thing in the morning, which will enable plants to take up the moisture before the heat peaks.

If you missed the opportunity in the morning, then you can water plants in the evening, once temperatures have dropped. However, watering before nightfall leaves plants damp overnight, increasing the possibility of fungal diseases.

Minimize the risk by only watering the soil, and avoiding soaking the foliage. This will reduce the spread of water-borne disease, and ensure the plants aren't left soaking overnight.

3. Take Extra Care With Containers

If possible, move potted plants to a shadier location during the heat of the day to protect them from the worst of the sun’s rays. Alternatively, the use of shade covers, especially on vegetable crops, may be helpful.

Container plants will need daily watering, even twice a day in high temperatures. Give the potting mix a thorough soaking until water can be seen coming out from the pot’s drainage holes.

Adding water granules to pots also helps with water retention. As these will gradually soak up excess water, in times of dryness, the granules will slowly release some of this water back into the soil.

In addition, opting for double-walled containers helps to insulate the roots of your plants against both extreme heat and cold.

4. Apply Mulch Around Plants

In addition to watering more often, mulching plants can help conserve moisture and keep plants cooler. It does this by providing insulation against temperature extremes, and by providing a barrier to excessive evaporation of moisture.

As well as reducing watering, mulching has the added benefit of introducing nutrients to the soil, and helping to keep down weeds, which will compete with your plants for water.

Add a 2-3-inch layer of natural mulch such as compost, hay, or wood chips around the base of the plants.

5. Remove Dead Foliage

While heavy pruning will add further stress to the plant, trimming away any severely damaged or scorched leaves and dead flowers is beneficial. This will reduce the plant’s energy expenditure on these parts.

Always use sharp scissors or hand pruners to minimize harm. Wipe the blades with a cloth soaked in sterilized solution between plants, to avoid transferring disease.

6. Don’t Fertilize

Hold off on fertilizing plants until they show strong signs of recovery. Feeding encourages plants to redirect energy toward new growth when it needs to go into repair. This will place too much stress on the plant, and lead to weak growth.

Wait until the extreme heat has passed and the plant has shown good signs of recovery before fertilizing again. However, if the plant has already peaked for the year, then it may be best to avoid feeding altogether.

Most perennial plants benefit from an application of fertilizer in early spring, and again in the summer when actively putting on new growth.

Bitterly cold winter weather is a problem for most plants and animals and trees are no exception. With extreme temperature changes, you can see cracked tree trunks. Sometimes you can even hear trees popping in extreme cold.

If you live in a climate where the temperatures fall drastically in winter, you’ll want more information on how this can affect your trees. We’ll also give you tips on how to prevent exploding trees.

Frost Cracks in Trees

When the temperatures drop well below zero, you may prefer to stay indoors, but landscape trees do not have that option. Truly cold temperatures can cause thin-skinned tree trunks to crack vertically.

These longitudinal openings are termed frost cracks, and they can extend deep into the inner wood of and permanently injure trees. Common victims of frost cracks include sycamores, maples, willows, horse chestnuts, apple trees, and cherry trees.

What Causes Frost Cracks?

The frost cracks are not caused exclusively by the cold weather. Rather, they appear after a quick temperature drop. Usually, the trees with frost cracks are those growing out where the sun shines on their bark of a winter afternoon. The warm sun heats up both the bark and the inner wood on the exposed side.

But the sun doesn’t stay up forever, and as it dips below the horizon or passes into clouds, the air temperature plummets. This rapid temperature change shrinks the bark quickly, but the inner wood is a different story. It shrinks much more slowly, and it is this unequal contraction between the two that cause the bark and the wood beneath it to split.

Can Trees Explode from Freezing?

The sudden cracking of the tree trunk and wood causes a loud noise like an explosion. This is the sound of trees popping in extreme cold.

Some scientists believe that the frost cracks in trees result from water moving out of cells and freezing during sudden drops in temperature. In this scenario, the surface wood shrinks as water in it freezes quickly, but the inner wood is not affected. This disparity causes pressure between the zones that cracks the trunk, causing a loud report.

Prevention Easier Than Cure

Once freeze cracks open up in a tree’s bark, it is difficult to help the tree. The cracks may close over in summer, but they don’t close entirely. This means that there is still an opening for insects and disease to enter. However, excellent cultural care that keeps the tree healthy can help it live longer. This includes extra water in times of drought and fertilizer when needed.

Excellent cultural care can also help prevent tree trunk cracking. Many frost cracks appear in wounds or areas that were weakened by branch death or root death. Be sure that your weed trimmer and lawn mower don’t damage the trunk of any landscape tree. All branch trimming should be done with proper equipment and proper pruning cuts.

Another place to focus is on preventing the south and southwest sides of deciduous tree trunks from the sun’s warmth on cold winter days. You can do this by planting evergreens on a side that will keep the deciduous tree’s trunk in shade. Another option is to wrap the vulnerable tree’s trunk with trunk guards that reflect sunlight. These should be removed as soon as frost danger is passed.

From gusty winds to too much rain, weather conditions can wreak havoc on a home garden. Yet nothing does more widespread damage to cold sensitive plants than freezing temperatures. Predicting frost can be a bit tricky but learning how to do so gives gardeners the edge when it comes to protecting their tender vegetable plants.

The Difference Between a Frost and Freeze Forecast

Frost occurs when temperatures at ground level reach 29 to 32 degrees F. (-1.7 to 0 C.). Exposures of 5 to 10 minutes at 29 degrees F. can severely damage frost tender crops like tomatoes and peppers. It takes a longer exposure at 32 degrees F. to cause similar damage.

Crops such as broccoli and lettuce can withstand a frost but can be killed by a moderate freeze. A moderate freeze is when temperatures remain between 25 (-3.9 C.) and 28 (-2.2 C.) degrees. Peas and spinach will survive these temperatures yet succumb to a heavy freeze when the thermometer drops below 24 degrees F. (-4.4 C.).

Frost Weather Forecast Factors

If you've ever been surprised by a frost-covered garden in the morning, you're not alone. Frost can seem quite unpredictable at times and is likely to occur even if the official overnight temperature remains above 32 degrees F (0 C.). Here are a few reasons why frost can be tricky to predict:

• Official temperatures are taken between 4 and 6 feet (1.2 – 1.8 m.) above the ground. Cold air is denser than warm and settles nearest to the ground while warmer air rises. This makes it possible for the ground temperature to reach 32 degrees F. (0 C.) even though the official overnight low temperature is higher.
• Sinking cold air can lead to spotty frost coverage. Plants in low areas may experience cold damage while those in higher elevations are spared.
• Spotty frost can be due to soil conditions. Moisture in the soil acts as a heat conductor. As night descends, moist soil slowly releases stored heat, which can prevent frost from forming near the surface.
• The number of hours between sunset and sunrise influences frost formation. Long nights in the fall allow more time for heat to escape and for surface temperatures to cool than in the spring.
• Frost is more likely to occur on clear, windless nights. Clouds emit infrared energy and help prevent cooling near the earth's surface.
• Frost is less likely to occur on breezy nights. Wind mixes the layers of warm and cold air in the atmosphere. This prevents cold air from settling near the ground.

How to Tell If There Will Be Frost

Dew point is a useful tool when making a frost prediction. Warm air has the capacity to hold more moisture than cold air. As the ambient temperature drops, it hits a point where the air can no longer hold the amount of water it contains and dew forms.

Temperatures can't fall below the dew point without water vapor condensing. This change in the state of water creates a small amount of heat, which generally keeps the ambient temperature from falling. Should the temperature fall further, the dew point also lowers. This can cause fog to form, which like clouds, emits infrared energy.

To accurately predict a frost, look for these clues:

• A forecasted overnight low less than 40 degrees F. (4.4 C.).
• A dewpoint lower than 40 degrees F.
• A cloudless night. (Be aware skies can clear overnight.)
• A windless night.

If you suspect frost is possible, pick off the garden or take steps to protect your tender vegetable plants by covering them with old bed sheets, plant blankets, cloche covers or cardboard. Erecting low or high tunnels also retains heat and prevents cold damage.

Lake effect snow is a common occurrence in the Great Lakes region. This type of snow can dump feet at a time. For gardeners, it’s important to understand lake effect snow, how it could affect your plants, and anything you need to do to protect them.

What is Lake Effect Snow?

If you have never lived in a cold region by a large body of water, you might be unfamiliar with this term. Lake effect snow is simply snow that forms as a result of a body of water rather than a specific weather system. In the U.S., lake effect snow typically occurs around the Great Lakes in areas of Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, and New York as well as Ontario in Canada.

Snow resulting from a lake can be intense and heavy, up to 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm.) per hour at times. It can also be highly localized, dumping a lot of snow in one area, while just a few miles away there is sunny weather and no snow.

What Causes Lake Effect Snow?

The causes of this type of snow system are the lakes themselves—particularly large bodies of water in cold climates—as well as other weather factors:

• Cold air from Canada blowing in the right direction
• A temperature difference between the air and the surface of the lakes
• Adequate moisture in the air

How Does Lake Effect Snow Form?

When all the right elements come together, as they often do multiple times each winter, a region can get massive lake effect snow. Here’s how it happens:

• Cold air from Canada moves across the Great Lakes with a temperature difference between the air and the lake surface of around 20 degrees.
• The lowest part of the air warms and picks up more moisture and rises above colder air.
• The colder air causes moisture in the warmer air to condense and form clouds.
• After several rounds the clouds become dense enough to produce snow.

For lake effect snow to occur, the cold, incoming air needs enough time and contact with the water to form clouds. When the air runs lengthwise along a lake—north to south along Lake Michigan or west to east along Lake Superior—it can produce snow.

Predicting Lake Effect Snow for Gardeners

Gardeners in the snow belt face the challenge of a big dump of snow on their plants. This can occur as early as September. Although rare, measurable snow was measured in International Falls, Minnesota as early as September 14th one year.

Predicting when, where, and how intensely this snow will occur is notoriously difficult, even for professionals. Gardeners can keep an eye on the forecast but never really be certain of what’s coming.

How to Protect Plants from Snow

If your garden is crowded with native species, they should have no problem surviving a heavy snowfall. This doesn’t mean a big dump of snow doesn’t cause problems for a wide range of plants though.

The good news is that snow is better than ice. An ice storm can coat plants, weighing them down and breaking branches. Snow is easier to shake off and isn’t as heavy. Also, snow can be beneficial in some ways. It insulates the ground and plants, protecting them from the coldest temperatures winter has to offer.

Trees and shrubs in the garden are most vulnerable to a heavy snow. If the snow is wet, it can be heavy and cause breaks and damage. The best way to protect these plants is to venture out in the storm and manually remove snow from branches. Pay special attention to your more delicate trees and shrubs.

Multi-stemmed shrubs are among the most vulnerable plants in a snow dump. You can protect them in advance of a snow system by binding several branches to each other with twine. This holds them together to make them stronger and less likely to split apart and break.

Also vulnerable is new growth or small transplants in early spring. A late snow can crush them, so watch the weather and use covers to protect them. Use a row cover, plastic milk jugs, or cardboard boxes.

Signs of frost damage on plants vary a little by plant. They can also be different from cold or chilling to deep freeze damage. It’s important to know the symptoms of cold and frost damaged plants to protect and recover those affected.

How Cold is Too Cold for Plants?

The lowest temperature a plant can withstand without damage varies from one type to another. Gardeners and horticulturists describe a plant’s ability to tolerate lower temperatures as cold hardiness. Most hardy plants go dormant during the winter and come back in spring. Exceptions include evergreens, which keep growing.

In North America, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) zones describe cold hardiness by listing the regions in which a plant can grow outside year-round. There are eleven zones, with subzones, with the hardiest plants in zone 1 and tropical plants that won’t tolerate cold in zone 11.

The USDA zones list the average annual low temperatures for those regions. These are the temperatures plants hardy to a zone can withstand and survive. For instance, zone 6 plants can tolerate average lows around 0 to -10 degrees F. (-18 to -23 C.).

Within these listed zones, there is some variation and exceptions. You might be able to grow plants that are outside of your cold-hardiness zones in certain situations. For example, there are microclimates within zones that might be warmer. A tender plant might survive your garden in a sheltered location, with a winter cover, or with mulch to hold some heat in the soil. Of course, you can also overwinter tender plants indoors.

Signs of Cold Damage on Plants

If you grow plants that are borderline hardy in your zone, or if you have an unusual cold-snap, frost, or freeze, they could suffer damage. Know the signs of damage to identify plants needing protection or recovery efforts.

Plant frost damage that results from freezing or sub-freezing temperatures occurs because the water inside the plant tissue has frozen. The ice crystals puncture cells, causing them to leak fluids and ultimately killing cells, tissue, and entire plants. Chilling or cold damage causes less harm but can still kill a plant if not addressed.

The first symptoms of damage usually occur in the young leaves and new shoots. Some of the typical signs of cold or frost and freeze damage in plants include:

• A water-soaked appearance
• Wilted leaves and shoots
• Leaf curling
• Browning or blackening of leaves
• Splitting at the base of the stem

In trees and woody shrubs, cold damage can cause more extensive harm. Bark splitting occurs when the base of the plant splits in response to sudden drops in temperature. This type of damage often occurs after unseasonably warm late winter or early spring weather followed by a hard frost.

A long, deep crack might occur in a tree trunk during a frost or freeze. Younger trees with smooth bark are most likely to suffer this kind of damage. Cracking occurs when sunlight and warmer day temperatures cause tissue in the trunk to expand. When the temperature drops too far at night, the contraction of the trunk can cause it to split or crack.

Even hardy evergreens can suffer cold damage. It often takes the form of desiccation. When the ground freezes to the extent that the roots can’t take up water, the needles might dry out. Signs of winter desiccation in evergreens include needles or leaves that appear browned or burned.

Prevention is best when it comes to cold and frost damage. Grow plants hardy to your zone, and if you have tender plants, protect them from the coldest weather. If you do discover some cold damage, it might not be too late. Remove damaged leaves or branches in spring when you can determine the full extent of the harm done. You may see new growth later.

Summer rain is good for the earth’s current drought conditions, but it may not contribute to pretty fruit. Have you ever wondered about apple fruit cracking or asked “Why are my cherry tomatoes splitting? The answer is very likely too much rain. Read on for more information.

Why Does Fruit Split on Trees?

Walking out in the home orchard and noticing that young fruit is cracking never makes a gardener happy. But it doesn’t mean you did anything wrong. Fruit cracking is most often a physiological response to an erratic water supply. It happens most often in July but can continue through harvest.

Each fruit has a set number of cells that expand to retain water, both water that falls on the fruit and water uplifted through the root system. If there are excessive rains and few dry periods, the cell walls stretch beyond the breaking point. Exactly when that breaking point arrives depends on the thickness of the skin of the species or cultivar. 

Why Are My Cherry Tomatoes Splitting?

This same issue arises in vegetable crops like tomatoes. Cracking in tomato fruit is due to periods of too much water. As summer temperatures rise, extreme rainfall or excess irrigation can result in radial cracking in tomato fruit. Their fragile skins just expand too fast. 

You can also find concentric cracking in tomatoes, usually just before they mature. These cracks run all the way around the fruit. The cause of this is also cycles of too much water followed by too little water or high and low temperatures. Providing even moisture all during the growing period will prevent this. 

Preventing Splitting Fruit

So if your fruit is cracking because of rain, rather than excess watering, is there anything you can do? There isn’t much for home gardeners to do.

Commercial producers with big operations use intensive management to limit the problem in times of heavy rain. This can mean using orchard covers or spraying the fruit with hydrophobic coatings. It might also mean drying the fruits with airblast sprayers or even helicopters, but this is too expensive and complex for the backyard orchard. 

Are there garden vegetables that can survive frost? The answer is yes. Many root vegetables and some members of the cabbage family can withstand a light frost, while certain types of leafy greens, potatoes and peas will tolerate a heavier frost. But how do freezing temperatures affect these cold-weather vegetables?

Freezing Temperatures and Cool-Weather Crops

Although gardeners often use the terms “frost” and “freeze” interchangeably, there is a difference. Frost occurs when moisture in the air creates ice crystals on the surface of the plant. A freeze happens when ice forms in and around the cells of the plant.

Freeze damage occurs when the water inside the plant expands as it turns to ice. This causes the plant's cells to burst, resulting in irreversible damage to plant tissues. In general, frost-tolerant vegetables have more intercellular space and can withstand internal ice formation better than frost-tender plants.

Freeze Damage in Cold-Weather Vegetables

When frost forms on the surface of cold-tolerant vegetables, moisture is pulled from the intercelluar spaces. This essentially dehydrates the cells and young plants are the most susceptible to damage. Depending upon the crop, this can cause yellowing of the foliage or lifting of the epidermis layer of the leaf. 

On the other hand, freeze damage in cool-weather crops often creates a water-soaked appearance on foliage and fruit. The foliage of leafy crops can become limp. Members of the cabbage family may turn brown and emit a strong odor. Large fruiting bodies can decay and collapse. Since freeze damage is irreversible, crops loss is inevitable.

Protecting Vegetables from Frost and Freeze

Late spring and early fall frosts and freezes are the most concerning to gardeners. In the spring, young plants are the most susceptible to cold temperatures and plant loss can occur even with frost-tolerant vegetables. In the fall, an early freeze can end the growing season prematurely. Gardeners can protect their crops using these methods:

• Mulching – A limited amount of protection can be obtained by mulching cold-hardy vegetables. Mulching helps retain ground moisture and heat, but provides little protection from dropping ambient temperatures.
• Covering - One of the quickest methods for protecting vegetables from frost is by covering the plants with fabric row covers, old bed sheets, blankets, baskets or cardboard boxes. Covering plants prior to nightfall traps in heat and can provide between 2 to 6 degrees F. or 1 to 3 degrees C. of protection.
• Tunnels – Plant tissue in direct contact with row covers can be susceptible to freeze damage. Since low and high tunnels create an area of trapped air around the plants, these methods of protecting cold-weather vegetables are often more effective during a freeze. Due to their transparency, tunnels can be left in place much longer than row covers.

Gardeners are advised to monitor the forecast in order to protect cool-weather crops from frost and freeze damage. Bear in mind, the forecast predicts surface air temperatures, which is measured several feet above the ground. Frosts and freezes occur when ground level temperatures reach 32 degrees F. (0 C.) or colder.

Experienced gardeners know to wait until after the last spring frost before planting out in the garden. However, no amount of experience can predict random bad weather. What do you do when you’ve planned correctly but a cold snap threatens your seedlings or early blooming flowers? 

How to Protect Plants from Late Spring Frost

If you have seeds in the ground when a surprise frost is headed your way, they should be fine. The ground stores and holds onto heat effectively. However, if you have seedlings, they could suffer frost damage if you don’t protect them. 

For anything that has already germinated, sprouted, or bloomed, provide some protection. A simple way to do this is to stake a couple layers of plastic or garden fabric over the rows of plants. It’s important to use stakes so the cover doesn’t blow away in the wind. You can also use covers on fruit trees that have already bloomed. 

Another option is to cover the plants with any kind of mulch you have on hand. This could be landscaping mulch or straw or leaves. If you’re crafty, you can build a mini greenhouse out of PVC piping and plastic row cover to protect and warm seedlings. 

How to Identify Frost Damage on Plants

If you missed the opportunity to properly protect seedlings from a late frost, they could suffer damage. Frost-damaged leaves shrivel and turn brown or even black. They will become limp and eventually drop from the plant. 

Frost damage is most likely to occur with your early, cool-season vegetables. You probably won’t get frost on tomato plants and other hot-weather veggies. They shouldn’t be outside until well after the danger of a late frost. 

Can Plants Recover From Frost Damage? 

Shrubs and trees know how to deal with a late frost. If the first growth is ruined by frost, they can leaf out again. Established perennials can also send out new shoots if necessary. 

Your little garden seedlings are much more vulnerable to irreparable cold damage. You will need to re-sow and grow new seedlings if the leaves get damaged. If you sowed seeds that don’t emerge a couple weeks after a late frost, assume they didn’t survive. 

If you have fruit trees, a late frost can really do damage to spring blooms, which means a limited harvest later. It only takes a temperature of 25 degrees F (-4 C) or lower to reduce the harvest by as much as 90%. The good news is that the cold snap doesn’t harm the tree itself. It will recover and provide a normal harvest the following year if the weather permits. 

Cicadas are not your typical insect pest. When they show up, there can be an awful lot of them, some are dramatically long-lived, and the list of trees they can damage seems infinite. It is no wonder you panic when you read that the brown leaves you are seeing on tree branches is a symptom of a cicada infestation.

But do those patches of brown foliage result from cicada damage to leaves? Cicadas may or may not be responsible. Read on for more information about cicada branch damage and the many other potential causes of brown leaves on trees.

Cicada Damage to Trees

It’s quite rare to have just one or two cicadas in your garden. While their populations are limited in forests, in backyards, parks and orchards, higher populations are the norm. If you have an acre of land, the cicada population may exceed 1.5 million. But most of them will be living underground.

Adult cicadas emerge from the ground to mate, then the female lays her eggs in tree branch. She uses a specialized body part to pierce a series of holes in the bark where she lays her eggs. In time, the eggs hatch into nymphs and drop to the ground where they dig in to search for roots, and they can stay for 13 to 17 years. When fully mature, they emerge as adults and the cycle continues. Adult cicadas only live a few weeks.

It is the holes pierced in the branch bark – termed flagging - that causes the branch tips to die and the leaves to turn brown. Note that this cicada flagging damage rarely does significant harm to trees, and it does not damage at all to mature, healthy trees. 

Is It Circada Damage?

If you are noting that the leaves on your trees are turning brown, you’ll want to figure out if this is cicada brand x damage… or something else. The first question is whether the trees with dead branches are deciduous or evergreen. If the answer is evergreen, you’ll need to find another cause. Cicadas usually don’t frequent evergreen trees. 

Were the branches big or small? Cicadas almost always lay their eggs on small twigs within 12 inches (30.48 cm.) from the branch tip. Does the cicada tree damage look like a row of puncture wounds with cracks connecting them length-wide along the twig? If not, it isn’t cicadas. Finally, ask yourself if there were 17-year cicadas anywhere in the immediate area of your yard this year. If you didn’t see any, the damage is probably not cicadas. They aren’t known to travel very far, and you would have noticed them had they been close by.

Other Potential Causes

If the brown leaves you are worrying about have appeared in fall, check first to make sure it’s not just a normal fall-color dying back of foliage. Look at your neighbor’s leaves up and down the street. If everyone’s leaves are turning brown and it is October, you have your answer.

Aside from that, the browning leaves might also be caused by petiole borer. This is the larval stage of a wasp. The wasp also punctures a hole in a tree to deposit its eggs. You can tell if it is the petiole borer because the holes it pierces are in the little stalk that connects a leaf to the branch. Generally this doesn’t cause serious problems. The issue could also be a fungal disease like powdery mildew or anthracnose. 

This has been a terrible wildfire year in many parts of the country, especially the west. In San Francisco, the smoke was so heavy that for a few days, the sky turned a surreal yellow and sunlight could not get through. While your first concern must be for the safety of yourself and your family, in time your attention returns to the garden. Can smoke hurt plants? How does smoke affect gardens? These are great questions to be asking and the answers may surprise you.

Wildfire Smoke in Gardens

Any gardener whose life was disrupted by wildfires knows that there was wildfire smoke in gardens too. Humans can wear an N-95 mask to go out or, if they are lucky, stay in the house with a HEPA air filter cleaning that smoke out of the air. Garden plants have neither of these options and may be exposed to smoke garden damage. 

That raises the very real question: how does smoke affect gardens? Implicit in that question are several others: Can smoke hurt plants? Can you help them? Can you eat the fruits and vegetables that were growing during the wildfires? While wildfire smoke in gardens does affect plants, it doesn’t necessarily hurt them.

Smoke Garden Damage

Perhaps the most obvious evidence of smoke damaged plants involves ash. In some places, including California, ash fell like snow in areas near the wildfires and even in parts of the state that were farther away. All that white ash – does it result in smoke damaged plants?

The quick answer is no. As long as you aren’t seeing a thick, smothering blanket of ash, the wood ash might actually help your plants. In fact, many gardeners amend their soil with wood ash, which provides potassium, phosphorous, calcium, and trace minerals. It works especially well for acid soil since it reduces acidity at the same time.

On the other hand, you’re definitely going to want to wash any garden produce down well before eating it, perhaps two or three times for good measure. Use a weak mix of vinegar and water. Realistically, smoke and ash aren’t likely to penetrate deep into the fruit or vegetable. 

Another option for those worried about smoke damaged plants is peeling fruits or removing the outer leaves of greens. If the crops still smell like smoke after rinsing and/or peeling, however, don’t eat them. Why take the risk?

Helping Gardens Avoid Smoke Damage

There are a few steps you can take to aid your plants exposed to wildfire smoke. First, while the smoke and ash are in the air, water the garden plants well if you can do it without putting yourself in danger. At least once a week, rinse off the leaves with the hose, both from the top and underneath, to clean off particles. 

It’s also good to protect your soil from chemicals that may be drifting with the smoke. A layer of mulch will do the trick, but so will cover crops. If your plants are extremely sensitive, you can use a frost barrier to keep those plant pores open. 

Some plant's potential to harm us has featured prominently in film and literature, as well as history. Plant poison is the stuff of "who dunnits" and scary flora are found in such plots as Little Shop of Horrors. You don't have to possess an Audrey II to find yourself faced with sinister plants though.

Some of our most common plants could show us the dark side of nature if we don't approach them with caution.

The Dark Side of Nature

Poisonous plants have a well-established place in history, both for their potential to harm, but also occasionally for their ability to heal. A little bit of some plants can actually be a boon, but you must approach with caution, as these dangerous garden denizens can also kill you. Such knowledge is best left to a professional, but you can still enjoy them in the garden and nature, just with an excess of prudence. Learn what plants to avoid to keep your family safe and still enjoy all nature has to offer.

Famous novels and movies often include the use of a plant toxin in the commission of a murder. The ability to inflict harm or even death is a common thread in mysteries and a historical saga that comes up in modern crime occasionally. Take the case of Georgi Markov who died from ricin. The toxin comes from the rather pretty castor bean plant and causes an excruciating death within days.

Other classic plant poisons are cyanide, oleander, belladonna, nightshade, hemlock, and strychnine. These can all kill, but sinister plants don't have to be deadly to harm. Take asparagus, for example. Just a few berries can cause nausea and pain, a fate worth avoiding.

Common Poisonous Plants

Even the foods that we eat can contain toxic compounds. These were likely developed by plants to deter insects or browsing animals. Tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers are all in the nightshade family, a very toxic and sometimes deadly group of poisonous edibles.

Cyanide can kill but, in small doses, it just makes us sick. Common plants that contain cyanide include:

• Apples
• Bitter Almonds
• Barley
• Cherries
• Flaxseed
• Peaches
• Apricots
• Lima Beans
• Bamboo Shoots
• Sorghum

Less scary but no less dangerous are plants with oxalic acid, such as spinach and rhubarb. The acid can cause kidney disorders, convulsions, and in acute situations, coma.

Building a Dangerous Garden

A famous garden with deadly plants is the Alnwick Garden in England. It is filled with plants that can kill and must be viewed with a staff member or through the great iron gates. Every plant in the beautiful garden has high doses of poison. Yet, it is a lovely garden and one where many of our commonly grown perennials and bushes reside.

Common laurel hedges mingle with more dangerous plants such as angel's trumpets, foxglove, and lily of the valley.

Landscape plants that we are familiar with can harm too. Calla lily, azalea, mountain laurel, larkspur, morning glory, privet, and boxwood are found in many yards and can cause harm. The key is to know what plants to avoid and, if you don't, do not touch, smell, or eat anything with which you are unfamiliar.

Whether wildlife rehabilitators, rescuers, pet owners, zookeepers, or even gardeners, it is necessary to be aware of toxic plants to turtles and tortoises. Aquatic turtles can be kept in an aquarium, but others may be free to roam in a prepared habitat or the backyard.

Recognizing Unsafe Plants for Turtles

It is best not to feed turtles anything you aren’t certain to be safe. When planting an enclosure, or the backyard if the turtle is allowed outside, first research the toxicity of all the plants that may be purchased or grown.

Also, identify all the plant species that already exist in the yard. If uncertain about specific plants, take cuttings of the leaves and flowers and take them to the local extension office or plant nursery for identification.

A turtle or pet will not know the difference between a toxic and non-toxic plant. Turtles often will eat a tasty looking plant so it’s up to you to know what turtles can eat.

What Plants Are Poisonous to Turtles

These are the most commonly known toxic plants to turtles, but many more exist.

Plants containing oxalates (oxalate salts)

Contact with these plants may cause burning, swelling, and pain:

• Arrowhead Vine (Syngonium podophyllum)
• Begonia
• Boston Ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata)
• Calla Lily (Zantedeschia sp.)
• Chinese Evergreen (Aglaonema modestum)
• Dumb cane (Dieffenbachia amoena)
• Elephant's Ear (Colocasia)
• Firethorn (Pyracantha coccinea)
• Pothos (Epipremnum aureum)
• Swiss Cheese Plant (Monstera)
• Umbrella Tree (Schefflera actinophylla) 

Toxic or potentially toxic plants to turtles

These are plants turtles should not eat and could cause trauma to various organs. Toxicity level ranges from mild to severe, depending on the plant: 

• Amaryllis (Amaryllis belladonna)
• Carolina Jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens)
• Asparagus Fern (Asparagus sprengerii)
• Avocado (leaves, seeds) (Persea americana)
• Azalea, Rhododendron species
• Bird of Paradise shrub (Poinciana gilliesii/Caesalpinia gilliesii)
• Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens)
• Buttercup family (Ranunculus sp.)
• Caladium (Caladium sp.)
• Castor Bean (Ricinus communis)
• Chinaberry (Melia azedarach)
• Columbine (Aquilegia sp.)
• Creeping Charlie (Glechoma hederacea)
• Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum)
• Daffodil (Narcissus sp.)
• Larkspur (Delphinium sp.)
• Carnation (Dianthus sp.)
• Euphorbia (Euphorbia sp.)
• Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
• Heavenly Bamboo (Nandina domestica)
• Holly (Ilex sp.)
• Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis)
• Hydrangea (Hydrangea sp.)
• Iris (Iris sp.)
• Ivy (Hedera helix)
• Jerusalem Cherry (Solanum pseudocapsicum)
• Juniper (Juniperus sp.)
• Lantana (Lantana camara)
• Lily of the Nile (Agapanthus africanus)
• Lily of the Valley (Convallaria sp.)
• Lobelia
• Lupine (Lupinus sp.)
• Nightshade family (Solanum sp.)
• Oleander (Nerium oleander)
• Periwinkle (Vinca sp.)
• Philodendron (Philodendron sp.)
• Love Pea (Abrus precatarius)
• Shasta Daisy (Chrysanthemum maximum)
• String of Pearls (Senecio rowleyanus)
• Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Dermatitis toxicity

Sap from any of these plants may cause a skin rash, itching, or irritation. Cleanse with soap and water.

• Candytuft (Iberis sp.)
• Ficus (Ficus sp.)
• Primrose (Primula sp.)

Potentially harmful plants

Some information suggests these plants could be harmful to turtles and tortoises too:

• Gardenia
• Grape Ivy (Cissus rhombifolia)
• Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris)
• Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima)
• Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus)

Bees need flowers and plants need bees for pollination. A bee-friendly garden is a great way to support the population of these pollinators, which is dangerously declining. Did you know that not all flowers are good for bees though? There are actually flowers harmful to bees. There are some “safe plants” that are better than others. Know the differences to ensure a bee-safe garden.

What Plants are Poisonous to Bees?

Believe it or not, there are flowers that are bad for bees. They cannot feed randomly on just any type of flower. Here are some examples of poisonous plants for bees:

• Carolina jessamine: This is a woody vine also known as yellow jessamine. It is found mostly in the southeastern U.S.
• Summer titi: Also called southern leatherwood or American cyrilla, summer titi should not be confused with spring titi, which is fine for honeybees.
• Mountain laurel: The mountain laurel is a pretty flowering tree that is found all across the eastern U.S.
• Rhododendron: A flowering shrub, rhododendron is widespread in the U.S., especially in forested areas.
• California buckeye: A common landscaping choice in California, this buckeye tree is toxic to honeybees. 

Remember, avoiding these known flowers harmful to bees will help to ensure you have the most beneficial bee-safe garden possible.

How to Choose Flowers to Support Bees

It is important to consider flowers toxic to bees when planning your flower beds. Also consider that among those nontoxic, there are some choices better than others. For instance, you may not realize that bees don’t see red colors well. They will rarely feed on red flowers because of this. Choosing blue, white, and purple flowers helps to attract the most bees.

Furthermore, choose flowers that are native to your area. This will help attract native bees and support the local population. Non-native species may not produce flowers that your local bees can feed on or benefit from. Use a variety of flower shapes as well. Different types of bees are able to feed on certain shapes based on the lengths of their tongues. For instance, if you have all long, trumpet-shaped flowers, your short-tongued local bees will be out of luck.

Bees tend to stick with one type of flower throughout a day of feeding, therefore, plant your bee-friendly flowers in large clumps. This will give them a big area in which to feed. Make sure you plan for flowers that will provide successive blooming so that bees can feed throughout the season.

Drought has affected large swaths of the country in recent years and plants stressed from drought often die. If drought is common in your neck of the woods, it’s a good idea to learn more about beautiful, drought-tolerant plants. Healthy plants can tolerate short-term drought, but if the drought has lasted for an extended period, reviving drought-stressed plants may be impossible.

Saving Dried Plants

You may be able to revive dried-out plants if they aren’t too far gone or if the roots haven’t been affected. Drought is especially harmful when plants are actively growing early in the season.

Plants stressed from drought generally show damage in older leaves first, then moving on to younger leaves as drought continues. The leaves typically turn yellow before they dry up and fall off the plant. Drought on trees and shrubs is typically shown by the dieback of branches and twigs.

How to Save Plants from Drought

You may be tempted to revive dried-out plants with a lot of water, but too much sudden moisture can stress the plant and damage tiny roots that are working hard to get established. Initially, just moisten the soil. Thereafter, water well once every week during the growing season then allow the plant to rest and breathe before watering again. If they’re not too far gone, you may be able to rehydrate container plants.

Plants stressed from drought should be fertilized carefully. Fertilize lightly using an organic, time-release product, as harsh chemicals can cause more damage. Remember that too much fertilizer is always worse than too little and also keep in mind that heavily fertilized plants need more water.

After the plant has been fed and watered, apply 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10 cm.) of mulch to keep the roots cool and moist. Pull or hoe weeds that will drain moisture and nutrients from the plant.

If plants have suffered dieback and turned brown, cut it back to about 6 inches (15 cm.) from the ground. With any luck, you’ll soon notice new growth at the base of the plant. However, don’t prune if temperatures are still high, even damaged foliage provides some protection from intense heat and sunlight.

Watch for pests and diseases that may attack plants stressed from drought. Pruning may help, but a badly infested plant should be discarded to prevent spread. This is a good time to replace thirsty plants with a few that are more drought-tolerant.

When you notice plants losing leaves unexpectedly, you may worry about pests or diseases. However, the true reasons for early leaf drop can be something else entirely, like the weather. Weather events obviously affect trees and plants in your garden.

Read on for more information about early leaf drop in trees and plants and how it relates to weather in your area.

Plants Losing Leaves

That falling foliage may be weather-related rather than something more dire. Your trees and smaller plants all lose leaves at different times and for different reasons. When you see plants losing leaves, the issue can be pests, diseases, or improper cultural care.

Early leaf drop in trees, though, is often weather-related. The term ‘weather-related leaf drop’ is used to describe how plants react to extreme weather or sudden changes in weather conditions. Very often, they drop their leaves.

Every year is unique when it comes to weather. Some events particularly affect plant life in your backyard. This can include snow, wind, excess rainfall, drought, and unusually warm spring days followed by cold weather. Any or all of these can be reasons for early leaf drop.

Often, the leaves that fall as a result of weather-related leaf drop are older leaves that would have fallen later in the season anyway, were it not for the spell of extreme weather. This is especially true for conifers.

Dealing with Early Leaf Drop in Trees

When early leaf drop is due to recent weather, there is little you can do to help the tree. While this may sound discouraging, it isn’t as bad as it sounds. Most of the time when you see leaf drop because of the weather, it is a temporary defoliation.

The plants will likely recover unharmed. The time to worry is if you see early leaf drop year after year. This can cause stress and make the plants susceptible to pests and diseases.

In that case, you should determine the weather event that is at the heart of the problem and try to compensate for it. For example, you can irrigate during drought or offer protection from cold weather. Alternatively, you might want to swap out your plants for those more adapted to the weather in your area.

The time to prepare for plant care during a heat wave is well before it hits. That said, in this day and age of uncertain weather, even areas that are not known for high temps can get hit with a sudden heat wave and gardeners may find themselves gardening in a heat wave. Special care is needed for plants during a heat wave and there are, indeed, recommendations for heat wave gardening.

Heat Wave Gardening

A handy tool to help navigate heat wave gardening is from the American Horticultural Society. They have created a Heat Zone Map containing 12 zones across the United States. Each zone indicates the average number of days each year that a heat event occurs – when temperatures exceed 86 F. (30 C.), the temperature when plants begin to suffer from heat.

Planning a garden specific to your climate is the best way to combat gardening in a heat wave. While the map will indicate if you should be planting heat tolerant cultivars, it isn’t a cure all, especially if you have tender annuals growing. So how do you go about caring for plants in a heat wave?

Start with healthy plants. Healthy plants are more able to tolerate heat than those stressed by lack of irrigation and nutrients or weakened by disease and pests. Plant in soil that is well-draining, rich in organic nutrients, and easy to keep irrigated. Also, plant at the correct depth; roots that are too close to the surface will fry during a heat wave.

Caring for Plants in a Heat Wave

Even when your plants are in the best condition they can possibly be in, they still need specialized plant care during a heat wave. Be sure they are watered (water early in the morning), mulch around the roots to keep them cool and help retain moisture, and provide shade. Shade can be in the form of a shade cloth, old sheet, or even a beach umbrella.

Despite your best efforts of caring for plants in a heat wave, some will inevitably fail. Cool weather crops will bolt, for instance. Sometimes, you have to cut your losses and just replant with heat tolerant veggies like beans, chard, or carrots.

Plants grown in containers need extra special attention. Container grown plants tend to dry out more quickly than those in the garden so extra attention to watering is vital. Mulching around the roots will also help to keep them cool. Also, if possible, move the container into a shaded or semi-shaded area. If lacking that option, consider providing shade with a shade cloth or the like.

While it’s easy to think of nature as a benevolent force, it can also be an extremely destructive one. Hurricanes, floods, wildfires, and mudslides are just a few of the weather events that have damaged homes and landscapes in recent times, with climate change adding more problems.

It is sometimes possible to limit the damage caused by extreme weather events by choosing your plants and trees with that in mind. If you want to learn more about yard design for natural disasters, read on. We’ll also give you tips on what to plant in storm resistant landscapes that will help protect your property from nature’s worst. (Please note that this may not fully guard against Mother Nature’s fury, but it can at least help and certainly won’t hurt to try.)

Landscaping for Natural Disasters

If you give careful thought to landscaping choices, it is possible to limit the destruction storms and other natural events cause to your property. Most gardeners are familiar with drought resistant planting, but with storms increasingly erratic in this time of climate change, it is also important to strive for storm resistant landscapes.

What exactly does landscaping for storms look like? Yard design for natural disasters can take many forms, since the damage storms threaten can include flooding, high winds, and mudslides. Here are some ideas for each of these dangers.

Landscaping for Storms

In some areas, the biggest storm danger comes from gale force winds, when Mother Nature threatens to blow your house down. The most storm resistant landscapes for this danger are those with strategically placed windbreaks that reduce wind speed and set up a strong buffer.

For windbreaks, select trees and shrubs with canopies that start close to the ground. Be sure to include some evergreens to provide year-round protections. Arborvitae is a popular choice, but ponderosa pine is also excellent. You might also include deciduous trees like sycamore and redbud.

When landscaping for natural disasters includes protecting against mudslides, planting native shrubs and trees can help. Mature trees and bushes with deep root systems will stabilize the ground even during mudslides.

Climate Change Landscaping

Many scientists point to climate change as the cause of the wildfires ravaging areas of the country. You can help protect your property against these threats as well by strategic climate change landscaping.

You can deter wildfires by keeping a clear fire safe zone around your house. That means clearing dead branches and shrubs and using hardscaping, but it also helps to keep all trees a distance from your structures.

Homeowners in fire zones should also select fire resistant trees and plants as they put together their plan for landscaping. Do not select conifers since these trees have plenty of sap that accelerate a fire. Instead, opt for high moisture plants. Hardwood trees like cherry, poplar, and maple have less sap. Also, shrubs like lemonade berry, yucca, and woolly blue curls resist fires well.

When gardening in tornado-prone regions such as the Midwest, it pays to do your homework before designing a landscape or adding trees to the yard. By choosing wind-resistant trees and taking proper care of those trees will go a long way toward garden tornado protection. Advance warning of an approaching tornado may also permit time to quickly remove items in the yard that could become airborne or cover plants that could suffer damage.

Tornado Proof Gardening

You may be wondering how to protect your garden from a tornado or if it’s even possible. When homeowners decide to plant trees or a garden, they often choose plants based on fall color, flowering, fragrance, etc. By also considering a tree’s strength against raging wind, such as during a tornado, the homeowner can minimize storm damage.

Here’s how:

• Research trees in your climate zone that are wind resistant. A good source is the local cooperative extension office. For example, trees native to storm-prone regions are good bets. They have deep root systems that keep them firmly planted in the ground. Examples of tornado hardy plants include bald cypress, ginkgo, live oak, magnolia, and winged elm.
• Avoid trees with shallow root systems and weak branch structure such as the overly planted Bradford pear. Others are birch, boxelder, cottonwood, dogwood, red cedar, and willow.
• After the new trees are planted, proper pruning, fertilizing, and watering will keep the trees healthy and more able to withstand violent weather.
• Mulch beneath the trees to the dripline to protect the roots from mower damage.
• Periodically check your landscape for dead trees and broken or damaged limbs. Consult an arborist, if necessary, for trimming or removal.

Garden Tornado Protection When Storms Imminent

With today’s sophisticated weather systems, meteorologists can warn residents of impending high winds and dangerous storms. Before bad weather strikes, here are some tips to minimize storm damage:

• Check the yard for anything that can become airborne and, if possible, bring it inside the garage or home. Examples include potted plants or hanging baskets, yard ornaments, lawn furniture, bird feeders, and hoses. Large containers can be moved to a sheltered area. 
• Use stakes to help support small trees and shrubs.
• Examine your produce garden and harvest as much as possible.
• Help protect small gardens by surrounding them with sandbags or bags of soil conditioners you have on hand.
• Remove lightweight row covers that could be damaged in high winds. 

A catastrophic weather event such as a tornado can be devastating, but a few precautions where your garden is concerned may reduce the amount of cleanup afterwards.

Rabbits are fun pets to have and, like any pet, require some knowledge, especially regarding plants that are dangerous for rabbits, especially if they’re allowed to roam around the yard. Plants toxic to rabbits may vary in their toxicity levels. Some plants harmful to rabbits have a collective effect and poisoning may not be immediately noticeable until too late. That’s why it is crucial to be aware of plants rabbits can’t eat and shouldn’t eat. After all, if something tastes good to them, they will eat it without regard to whether or not they are poisonous plants.

About Plants Rabbits Can’t Eat

Rabbits have a fairly sensitive digestive system. They require a high fiber, low sugar, and low-fat diet. This is why most ‘people food’ is a no-no; rabbits can’t tolerate foods like bread, rice, chips, or chocolate for instance. When Thumper is nosing around for a treat, refrain from sharing your chips or other snacks and opt for rabbit healthy options instead.

So just what plants are toxic to rabbits? Rabbits kept as pets usually have a fairly limited menu, but those allowed to forage or have free range in a home are in danger of ingesting plants that are dangerous to rabbits.

Rabbit Poisonous Plants

Those who allow their rabbits free-range should be aware that all houseplants are considered poisonous plants. There may be differences in how toxic a houseplant is, but to be on the safe side, assume that all houseplants are toxic to rabbits.

It is said that wild rabbits tend to avoid plants poisonous to them. The same cannot be said for rabbits kept as pets. Since they live off of a limited variety of foods, when allowed to roam and forage on their own, they will most likely be happy to try just about any “new”, green plant.

Their adventurous palates might turn out to be a very bad trait. There are numerous plants harmful to rabbits. It is your job to understand what plants these may be and remove them from the foraging area.

The following plants toxic to rabbits are considered dangerous to ingest. This is not a complete list but should be used as a guideline:

• Arum lily
• Buttercups
• Columbine
• Comfrey
• Delphinium
• Foxglove
• Hellebore
• Holly
• Ivy
• Larkspur
• Monkshood
• Nightshade
• Periwinkle
• Poppy
• Privet
• Yew
• Apple seeds
• Apricot trees (all parts except the fruit)
• Onions
• Tomato
• Rhubarb
• Potato greens

Anything that grows from a bulb should be considered a plant harmful to rabbits. A lot of native produce such as wild carrots, cucumbers, and garlic is toxic to rabbits. Also, steer rabbits away from nibbling on macadamia nuts or almond trees.

Other Plants Rabbits Can‘t Eat

• Fool’s parsley
• Ragwort
• Bryony
• Poison hemlock
• Aconite
• Celandine
• Corn cockle
• Cowslip
• Dock
• Henbane
• Hedge garlic
• Spurge
• Travelers’ Joy clematis
• Wood sorrel

Note: Unfortunately, poison hemlock is easily confused with cow parsnip, a particular favorite of rabbits. Cow parsnip is brighter green while hemlock has purplish-pink spots on the stems and shinier leaves. Hemlock is extremely toxic to rabbits and results in rapid, upsetting death.

Whenever you move a plant, the plant is stressed. It remains stressed until it establishes itself in the new location. You hope to see the plant spread its roots into the surrounding soil and thrive. Yet, sometimes a plant won’t establish and, instead of thriving, declines. Read on for information on some of the reasons for establishment failure after transplant and what you can do to prevent it.

Why Plants Won’t Establish

Do your plants fail to establish? It’s always discouraging when a new plant you’ve installed in the garden doesn’t grow well. If you see leaves yellowing and falling or branch dieback, it is probably a case of establishment failure.

Plants fail to establish for many reasons, including diseases and pests. Generally, plants don’t grow after transplant because of missteps in planting or cultural care after planting. Too small a planting hole and improper irrigation are the leading issues.

Newly installed plants, both annuals and perennials, require adequate care and attention in order to develop and thrive in your garden. They must be situated in an appropriate location, planted correctly, and provided proper irrigation to thrive. When any of these factors are lacking, your plant won’t establish.

If you see a plant that appears to be ailing, losing leaves, or lacking vigor, it could be from a failure to establish.

Preventing Establishment Failure

If you understand why plants fail to establish, you can usually prevent this sad result. Before you transplant, be sure that a plant is appropriate for your hardiness zone and for the location. Some plants require full sun, others partial sun, and some prefer shade. If you get the hardiness or exposure wrong, the plant will not thrive.

A newly installed plant needs to be able to spread its roots into the soil of the new location. To make sure that is possible, prepare a large planting hole, loosening the soil on all sides. Loosen the plant roots as well if they are curled inside the pot. Then, position the plant in the hole at the correct depth, usually the same depth as in its prior pot or growing location. 

Irrigation is very important for transplants and too little irrigation is a primary reason why plants don’t grow after transplant. You need to water the plant regularly in the days after transplant, often enough to keep the soil moist. Continue this practice for several months.

Take care if the soil is heavy like clay. In that case, too much water can rot the roots, so you’ll need to strike a balance.

Brick edging is an effective way to separate your lawn from a flower bed, garden, or driveway. Although installing a brick edging takes a bit of time and money at the outset, it will save you tons of effort down the road. However, while brick is relatively easy to install, your hard work will be lost if brick edging frost heave pushes the bricks out of the ground.

Read on for tips on how to stop brick heaving from happening.

About Brick Edging Frost Heave

Frost heave is caused when freezing temperatures cause moisture in the soil to turn into ice. The soil expands and is pushed upward. Brick frost heave is common in cold weather climates, especially in late winter or early spring. It’s generally worse when winters are exceptionally cold, or if the ground freezes suddenly.

If you’re lucky, the bricks will settle when the weather warms in spring, but this isn’t always the case. The key to preventing bricks from heaving is good drainage and proper preparation of the ground to prevent water from puddling near the surface of the soil.

Prevention of Brick Frost Heave

Dig a trench, removing the sod and topsoil to a depth of least 6 inches (15 cm.), or slightly more if the soil drains poorly, or if you live in a cold winter climate.

Spread about 4 inches (10 cm.) of crushed rock in the trench. Tamp the crushed gravel with a rubber mallet or a piece of lumber until the base is flat and solid.

Once the gravel base is firm, cover it with approximately 2 inches (5 cm.) of coarse sand to prevent frost heave. Avoid fine sand, which won’t drain well.

Install the bricks in the trench, one brick at a time. When the project is completed, the bricks should be ½ to 1 inch (1-2.5 cm.) above the surface of the surrounding soil. You may need to add more sand in some places and remove it in others.

Tap the bricks firmly into place with your board or rubber mallet until the top of the bricks is even with the surface of the soil. Once the bricks are in place, spread sand over the bricks and sweep it into the gaps between bricks. This will firm the bricks into place, thus preventing bricks from heaving.

If you are an avid gardener that loves indoor plants but also a smoker, you may have wondered what impact secondhand smoke can have on them. Houseplants are often used to keep indoor air cleaner, fresher, and even filtered of toxins.

So what does smoke from cigarettes do to their health? Can plants filter cigarette smoke?

Does Cigarette Smoke Affect Plants?

Studies have already found that the smoke from forest fires negatively impacts trees that survive big blazes. The smoke seems to decrease a tree’s ability to photosynthesize and grow efficiently.

There have also been a few studies about how cigarette smoke affects the growth and health of indoor plants. One small study found that plants exposed to cigarette smoke for 30 minutes per day grew fewer leaves. Many of those leaves browned and dried out or dropped off sooner than leaves on plants in a control group.

The studies on plants and cigarettes are limited, but it does seem that at least concentrated doses of smoke can be damaging. These small studies confined the plants to small areas with lit cigarettes, so they do not exactly mimic what a real home with a smoker would be like.

Can Plants Filter Cigarette Smoke?

A recent study found that plants can absorb nicotine and other toxins from cigarette smoke. This may indicate that plants and smoking cigarettes could be a way to filter indoor air to make it healthier for human residents.

In the study, researchers exposed peppermint plants to cigarette smoke. After just two hours, the plants had high levels of nicotine in them. The plants absorbed nicotine from the smoke through their leaves but also through their roots. It took time for the level of nicotine in the plants to go down. After eight days, half of the original nicotine remained in the mint plants.

What this means is that you could use plants to absorb toxins from cigarette smoke and the air in general. Plants are capable of trapping and even holding onto nicotine and other substances in the air, soil, and water. That said, too much smoke in a small area could have more detrimental effects on your plants rather than the other way around.

It’s always better to smoke outdoors, if at all, to avoid any health related issues to you, others, or your plants.

Planning a garden filled with perennial flowers can be time consuming, as well as expensive. Protecting our landscape – and our investment in it – is of the utmost importance. As winter approaches, many of us will wonder how best to protect perennial plants from dramatic and extreme swings in temperature. While frigid winter temperatures are obviously an issue, overwintering plants from the risks of high winds is also critical. Here we consider some of the steps you can take to protect your plants.

How Do Winter Winds Affect Plants?

Overwintering in high wind areas can be difficult for many perennial plants. Convective heat loss resulting from high winds can cause damage to plants in cold climates. This issue is further exacerbated for plants in containers or pots.

Overwintering Plants in the Wind

When it comes to overwintering in high wind areas, protecting the plants is key. When preparing for winter, perennial container plantings should be moved to a sheltered location. In many cases, this means closer to the house or in a space where they will receive less direct winter sunlight. Cold garages are another option once the plant has gone into dormancy. Other strategies, however, may be required for plantings that are directly in the ground.

Accounting for the wind and overwintering more sensitive plants is a delicate process that requires special care. While plants that are easily hardy to your growing region may not require any special treatment to survive the winter, others with less tolerance to cold, and especially wind, may benefit from additional protection.

Plant protection can vary widely, depending upon the plant. While some plants simply require an additional layer of insulating mulch, others may require assistance in the form of row covers or greenhouse plastics. Thermal blankets with varying degrees of plant protection are also excellent options for those living in regions with high winds.

Other garden structures that can assist gardeners with overwintering perennial plants include low tunnels, as well as full-sized unheated greenhouses or hoop houses. Not only do these structures protect the plants from high winds, but also provide ample soil warming on sunny winter days. If the construction of these structures is not possible, various types of wind screens may assist growers in preventing winter wind damage.

Goats have the reputation of being able to stomach almost anything; in fact, they’re commonly used for weed control in landscapes, but are there any plants poisonous to goats? The truth is there are quite a number of plants goats can’t eat. It’s important to learn to recognize plants that are toxic to goats and how to address the symptoms. Read on to learn about poisonous plants for goats to avoid.

Are Any Plants Poisonous to Goats?

There are more than 700 species of plants in the United States that have been recognized as causing toxicity in ruminants. Plants dangerous to goats are more likely to be ingested when the animals are near starvation and eat plants they normally would avoid, however, that isn’t the only time a goat will feed on toxic plant life.

Goats are often used in the clearing of woodlands and wetlands, thus exposing them to casual ingestion of plants that are toxic to goats. Sometimes hay contains dried toxic weeds which can poison a goat. Poisonous plants for goats may also be eaten when they are allowed to feed on landscape or garden plants.

Poisonous Plants for Goats

There are few plants goats can’t eat; the more important consideration is those they shouldn’t eat. Not every poisonous plant is deadly, as many have various levels of toxicity causing different effects. Some can be immediate while others may be cumulative and build up in the body over time. The type of poisonous plant and the amount the animal has ingested will determine the level of toxicity.

Plants toxic to goats that should be avoided include:

Garden/Landscape Plants

• Black Cohosh
• Bloodroot
• Carolina Jessamine
• Celandine
• Poppy
• Bleeding Heart
• Fumewort
• Hellebore
• Larkspur
• Lupine
• Corn Cockle
• Ivy
• Lily of the Valley
• Milkweed
• White Snakeroot
• Lantana
• Sneezeweed
• St. John’s Wort
• Wolfsbane/Monkshood
• Dutchman’s Breeches/Staggerweed
• Parsnips

Shrubs/Trees

• Boxwood
• Carolina Allspice
• Oleander
• Rhododendron
• Wild Black Cherry
• Wild Hydrangea
• Black Locust
• Buckeye
• Cherry
• Chokecherry
• Elderberry
• Laurel

Weeds/Grasses

• Johnson Grass
• Sorghum
• Sudangrass
• Velvetgrass
• Buckwheat
• Rape/Rapeseed
• Nightshade
• Poison Hemlock
• Rattleweed
• Horsenettle
• Indian Poke
• Jimsonweed
• Death Camas
• Water Hemlock

Additional plants dangerous to goats that are not likely to cause a severe reaction but may make the animal uncomfortable include:

• Baneberry
• Buttercups
• Cocklebur
• Creeping Charlie
• Lobelia
• Sandbur
• Spurges
• Inkberry
• Pokeweed
• Pine Trees

If you keep a flock of sheep, whether big or small, putting them out to pasture is an essential part of each day. The sheep get to graze and roam, doing what they do best. However, there are risks to your flock if you have plants that are bad for sheep in your pasture. Protect your sheep by learning what common plants could harm them.

Plant Toxicity in Sheep

Any kind of livestock that goes out to pasture (including urban and suburban areas) and grazes is at risk for finding plants poisonous for sheep. The boundaries between rural and urban areas are blurring in some places, and this may put sheep at greater risk. Backyard sheep may encounter types of plants they wouldn’t normally see in a pasture that could be harmful to them.

With sheep and poisonous plants, it’s best to be proactive. Know the dangerous plants and remove them from the areas your sheep will graze. Also, look for signs of poor health and plant toxicity in sheep so you can get veterinary care as soon as possible.

Signs and symptoms to watch out for include:

• Not eating
• Vomiting
• Staying away from the rest of the flock
• Keeping head down, apathy, fatigue
• Acting confused
• Drinking an excessive amount of water
• Difficulty breathing
• Convulsions
• Bloating

What Plants are Poisonous to Sheep?

Plants poisonous for sheep may be lurking in your pastures, around the edges of fields, along fence lines, and in your landscaping or garden beds. Some examples of toxic plants you may be using intentionally for landscape and garden areas include:

• Iris
• Holly
• Morning glory
• Rhubarb
• Cruciferous vegetables (like cabbage and broccoli)
• Yew
• Oak
• Oleander
• Wild cherry
• Mountain laurel
• Lantana

Plants more likely to be found in a pasture that could be dangerous to your sheep include:

• Milkweed
• Locoweed
• Lambsquarters
• Snakeroot
• St. John’s wort
• Flax
• Birdsfoot trefoil
• Bracken fern
• Black locust
• Pokeweed
• Common nightshade
• Arrowgrass
• False hellebore
• Common ragwort

Keeping your pasture clear of toxic plants is important for the health of your flock. If you notice signs of toxicity, contact your veterinarian immediately. Search for the plant that likely caused the symptoms so you can provide more information to help with the sheep’s care.

It’s easy to find lists of plants that can injure dogs. But if you happen to have a pet pig or if you raise pigs as livestock, don’t assume that the same list applies. What is poisonous to pigs? Plants harmful to pigs don’t always kill them. Read on for a list of plants that are toxic for pigs and those that will make pigs sick.

What is Poisonous to Pigs?

The list of plants harmful to pigs is a long one. Many plants that are toxic for pigs kill them quickly. They are so very poisonous to porkers that eating one leaf will kill them. Many will look similar to poisonous plant lists for humans like:

• Hemlock
• Nightshade
• Foxglove
• Angel Trumpet

Others are common ornamentals you probably grow in your flower garden such as camellia, lantana and flax.

Other Plants That are Toxic for Pigs

Some plants are harmful to pigs but won’t kill them. When pigs eat these plants, they become sick but don’t usually die. These plants usually result in nausea or diarrhea. These range from small to tall, from sweet peas to redwood trees, eucalyptus and birches. Aloe vera makes the list and so does hyacinth and hydrangea.

Other bulb plants, flowers and berries that will make them sick include:

• Narcissus
• Easter Lily
• Tulips
• Daphne
• Lobelia
• Holly
• Elderberry
• Chinaberry
• Daisies
• Ranunculus
• Sweet William
• Daffodils

Other plants harmful to pigs are neither poisonous nor nauseating to the animals, but they are still plants pigs can’t eat since they can cause harm.

Some plants, like parsley, cause photosensitivity. Others, like begonias, calla lilies and philodendron, cause swelling of the mouth. Acorns can cause miscarriages in sows. If pigs eat stone fruits from the orchard, the pits can lodge in the small intestine. Similarly, if pigs chow down on unshelled walnuts, pieces of cracked shells can pierce the pharynx of the animal.

Pigs that are kept as livestock usually avoid eating poisonous forage plants. These plants tend to taste bitter, so pigs only eat them as a last resort if all other forage plants are eaten or destroyed.

Keeping cows is a lot of work, even if you have just a small farm with a herd of a few cattle. One of the potential pitfalls is letting your cows into pasture where they could access and eat something toxic. There are plenty of plants cows shouldn’t eat, and if you are going to have any amount of cattle, you need to know what some of these are. Keep reading to learn more about identifying plants poisonous to cattle.

Signs of Plant Poisoning in Cows

Not all plants poisonous to cattle will be lethal or make animals severely ill. It’s important to be on the lookout for any signs that your cows may have gotten into some toxic plants. Some are subtle, while others may be obvious:

• Not eating at all or as much as usual
• Losing weight
• An overall unhealthy appearance
• Muscle weakness
• Failure to grow or develop normally

If your animals have any of these signs, there are also important indicators that the culprit is one or more poisonous plants. If your cows have been in a new pasture area, where the forage has been recently fertilized with nitrogen, or it is early spring and grasses haven’t come in yet, they could have gotten into some toxic plants. 

What Plants are Toxic to Cows?

There are a number of toxic plants for cows, so it’s always a good idea to find out which grow in your area and to regularly check for their presence in your pasture. Here are some common plants toxic for cows, so you’ll need to remove these from pastures or anywhere they could have access them:

• Black locust
• Elderberry
• Horse chestnut
• Oak
• Wild cherry, chokecherry
• Arrowgrass
• Bleeding heart
• Buttercup
• Dogbane
• Foxglove
• Iris
• Jimsonweed
• Monkshood
• Lambs quarters
• Lantana
• Lupine
• Larkspur
• Locoweed
• Mayapple
• Milkweed
• Nightshades
• Pokeweed
• Poison hemlock
• Water hemlock
• Sorghum
• Tall fescue
• White snakeroot
• Any plants that have been over-fertilized with nitrogen

In addition to checking grazing areas for bad plants for cattle, some other management steps can reduce poisoning risk. Avoid letting cows overgraze areas, never turn cows into a new pasture when they are very hungry, provide plenty of clean water for cows, and fence off any areas that you know contain poisonous plants so cows can’t get to them.

For natural beauty and ease of care, you can’t go wrong using native plants in your landscape. Erosion resistant native plants can also help stabilize hillsides and disturbed sites. There are many native plants that are good for erosion and, once established, need little maintenance and are tolerant of the conditions in the site. Building an erosion proof plan starts with a list of some of the best native plants for erosion control.

About Erosion and Native Plants

Using native plants in the landscape provides a visual “tie-in” to the surrounding flora. They're more adaptable than imported species and have the ability to thrive once they mature without much human intervention. Whether you have a hillside, slope along a waterway or a previously eroded space, native plants can help preserve the soil and maintain the land.

Erosion can occur from wind, gravity, water and even over-use. Utilizing native plants can help anchor soil and reduce run-off. These indigenous plant stars are used to the conditions in the region and perform their duties without excess water use, while providing natural habitat and enhancing biodiversity.

Using a mixture of trees, shrubs and ground covers will also enhance the appeal of the site. Choose plants that offer a variety of attributes such as food, seasonal color and various heights. Also, consider a mixture of flora that has fibrous or taproots for additional soil retention.

Preventing Native Garden Erosion with Creeping Plants

Groundcovers are perfect native plants for erosion control. Creeping juniper is about as unfussy as you could wish for and forms a dense mat-like, low-growing shrub. If you want seasonal color, select a plant like Kinnikinnick. It turns a glorious burgundy in fall and produces sweet flowers in late spring. Wild strawberries will feed you and the birds and fill in an erosion prone area quickly and effortlessly.

Some other low growing native plants good for erosion are:

• Dunegrass
• Deer fern
• Redwood sorrel
• Bunchberry
• Wild Ginger
• Yarrow
• Douglas aster
• Large leaved lupine
• Solomon’s seal
• False lily of the valley

Tall Erosion Resistant Native Plants

Trees and shrubs add impact to the landscape while also preserving erosion prone areas. A spring flowering Pacific crabapple or red barked madrone will complement any garden. These statuesque native plants need little care once established. Or perhaps you want to go a little smaller. Try Oregon grape with three seasons of interest or snowberry, which will attract bird life.

Vertical plantings are just as effective. Simply ensure they have a little help at the outset establishing. Other trees and shrubs to try might include:

• Spirea
• Mock orange
• California lilac
• Elderberry
• Spicebush
• Willow
• Wild rose
• Laurel sumac
• Western azalea
• Mountain ash
• Pacific rhododendron
• Red twig dogwood

At Christmastime, one of our warm and fuzzy traditions is to kiss under the mistletoe. Did you know mistletoe is actually a parasite, one that has the potential to be a vicious tree-killing one? That’s right-- just a little factoid to keep in your hip pocket if you need a great excuse for ducking out of a holiday smooch. Mistletoe actually is one of many different types of parasitic plants out there. Given that there are over 4,000 species of parasitic plants in existence, you will need some parasitic plant info to help you make sense of it all.

What are Parasitic Plants?

What are parasitic plants? The simple explanation is that they are heterotrophic, meaning that they are plants that rely on other plants in whole, or in part, for their water and nutrition. They are able to siphon these resources from another plant because they possess modified roots, called haustoria, which penetrate undetected into the pipeline, or vascular system, of their host. I liken it to a computer virus latching onto your computer system undetected, siphoning and draining your resources.

Types of Parasitic Plants

There are many different types of parasitic plants in existence. The classification of a parasitic plant is essentially determined by giving it a litmus test across three different sets of criteria. The first set of criteria determines whether the completion of a parasitic plant’s life cycle is solely dependent on its association with a host plant. If it is, the plant is considered an obligate parasite. If the plant has the potential to survive independent of a host, it is known as a facultative parasite. The second set of criteria assesses the type of attachment the parasitic plant has to its host. If it attaches to a host’s root, for instance, it is a root parasite. If it attaches to a host’s stem, it is, you guessed it, a stem parasite. The third set of criteria classifies parasitic plants according to their ability to produce their own chlorophyll. Parasitic plants are considered holoparasitic if they produce no chlorophyll and rely exclusively on the host plant for nutrition. These plants are characteristically pale or yellow in appearance. Parasitic plants which do produce their own chlorophyll (and hence are greener in color), gleaning some nutrition from a host plant, are identified as hemiparasitic. Mistletoe, so lovingly described in this article’s opener, is an obligate stem hemiparasite.

Parasitic Plant Damage

It is important that we are aware of this parasitic plant info because parasitic plant damage can have serious repercussions. The stunted growth and death that afflict the parasites’ host plants can happen on a massive scale and threaten vital food crops or even disrupt the delicate balance in ecosystems and all who exist within it.

Savvy gardeners are always on the watch for important plant infections in their gardens. One area that many neglect, however, are parasitic plants. If a plant is growing on or near another, it’s generally assumed they’re simply compatible, and not that one is drawing vital nutrients from the other. Learn more about holoparasitic plants in this article so you can better distinguish plant friend from foe.

What are Holoparasitic Plants?

Spending time in the garden means getting better acquainted with some of the more lowly denizens contained therein. You learn which plants are weeds, which ones are useful groundcover and, if you’re lucky, which ones are holoparasitic plants. With anything in life, the plant kingdom contains a small segment (about 4,400 species) of flowering plants that don’t produce any or all of their own food. This holoparasitic information will help you better recognize them when wandering the garden path. Holoparasitic plants in the garden may be some of the least obvious occupants, but they can have a big impact. These plants are wholly dependent on host plants to survive, tapping into their xylem and phloem, gaining access to water, minerals, and other organic products. Holoparasitic plants don’t photosynthesize, but they do flower and often feature leaves that have reduced to scales and succulent stems. Parasitic plants like these attach to their host using a specialized structure called the haustorium, which is always a vital structure in holoparasites. Holoparasitic plants in gardens can either act strictly as parasites, stealing nutrients and giving nothing in return, but also not seriously injuring their hosts, or they can behave as pathogens. Plant family Hydnoraceae, for example, often coexist with their plant hosts. Other holoparasites, like dodder, will attach to and kill a wide range of host plants – in this way behaving both as a parasite and a pathogen. These two types of holoparasitic plants tend to create a pretty simplistic picture, since, in reality, some strictly parasitic plants can accidentally kill their hosts, and some pathogenic plants can be resisted by genetically strong hosts. Other types of holoparasitic plants include:

• Toothwort
• Broomrape
• Beechdrop
• Squawroot

Holoparasitic Plants vs. Carnivorous Plants

Although it might seem like holoparasitic plants and carnivorous plants have a great deal in common, they’re really very different creatures. Where holoparasitic plants attach themselves to other plants, often without even bothering to produce roots or leaves, carnivorous plants both root in their environments and produce small and often waxy leaves for photosynthesis. Holoparasites produce none of their own food. Carnivorous plants, on the other hand, produce all of their own food, but live in nutrient-poor environments and, as such, must get some of their most vital building blocks by dissolving animals that have been lured and captured using various traps. In a way, holoparasitic plants and carnivorous plants are complete opposites. They both thrive in areas where many plants would struggle, but how they do it is entirely different. Holoparasites work only hard enough to find a host; carnivorous plants work every day to bait and trap unsuspecting insects and small animals.

There are lots of plants in the garden that we devote almost no thought to. For example, parasitic plants exist in a wide range of conditions and they’re rarely discussed. This article is about hemiparasitic plants and the damage they can do to your landscape or garden.

What is a Hemiparasitic Plant?

Photosynthesis is an important process for plants everywhere, or so most people think. Smart gardeners, however, know that there are parasitic plants out there that derive some or all of their nutrients by stealing them from other plants. Just like parasitic animals feed on the blood of other animals, parasitic plants do much the same thing. There are two main types of plant parasites: hemiparasitic and holoparasitic. Hemiparasitic plants in gardens are of less concern than their holoparasitic counterparts. When looking at holoparasitic vs. hemiparasitic plants, the key distinguishing feature is how much of their nutrients are derived from other plants. Hemiparasitic plants photosynthesize, unlike holoparasitic plants, which do not. However, that’s not the end of the most important hemiparasitic plant info gardeners need. Since these plants are still parasites, they do utilize other plants to survive. By attaching to their host plants’ xylem, hemiparasitic plants are able to steal water and valuable minerals. Root hemiparasites are harder to detect, since they attach to their hosts below ground, but stem hemiparasites are obvious because they attach to the host’s trunk. Some root hemiparasites are able to complete their life cycles without a host, but all stem hemiparasites need a host to survive. Examples of hemiparasitic plants include:

• Mistletoe
• Indian sandalwood (Santalum album)
• Velvetbells (Bartsia alpina)
• Rattle plants (Rhinanthus)
• Indian paintbrush

Most of these plants look very much like freestanding agents, but they are, in fact, feeding off something nearby.

Do Hemiparasitic Plants Cause Damage?

Having parasites in the garden is obviously cause for alarm for many homeowners. After all, these plants are leaching important nutrients from somewhere – it could be beloved landscape plants. The truth is that it really depends on the plant and the condition of the host whether or not a hemiparasitic plant will cause considerable damage. Those that are already weakened or plants that are devoting all their resources to producing food will be hit much harder than healthy landscape plants. The first sign of hemiparasitic plants is always the actual appearance of the plant in the garden, but if you’re unfamiliar with the parasite, it might seem like a harmless weed or wildflower. The host plant, no matter how healthy, will almost certainly show some subtle signals. For example, a lush green bush that has a hemiparasite may suddenly fade a little or need more feedings. Always check for new plants in the garden before assuming your landscape is simply old or ill, as recovery could be as simple as killing the hemiparasite that’s making it difficult for your plant to get enough nutrients.

The wind howls like a banshee, perhaps the death she portends is the death of your landscape. Heavy rain beats down on the home and landscape like a steady beat of drums. You may even hear the occasional “ting” of hail pelting off windows and siding. Thunder rumbles, shaking the house around you. You look outside and see your landscape plants whipping around in the wind. Lightning strikes off in the distance, for a brief moment lighting up your view, showing you all the destruction, you will have to deal with once the storm passes – downed limbs or trees, pots blown away, plants flattened, etc. Clean up after severe weather can be quite a chore. Continue reading to learn how to protect plants from thunderstorms.

Thunderstorm Plant Damage

Thunderstorms, specifically lightning, are good for plants. The air around us is full of nitrogen, but plants cannot absorb this nitrogen from the air. Lightening and rain put this nitrogen into the soil where plants can absorb it. This is why lawns, gardens, and landscapes look so green after a thunderstorm. Thunderstorms may not be so good for you, though, if a tree limb falls and damages property or if your hanging baskets and containers have flown off to the neighbor’s yard. When there is the threat of severe weather, remove container plants to a sheltered location. “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,” said Benjamin Franklin. While this is true of so many things, it is also true of preparing for severe weather. Performing regular maintenance of trees and shrubs can prevent a lot of storm damage. All too often we only assess the damage to our trees and shrubs after storms, when we should actually be inspecting them regularly to ensure they aren't damaged when severe weather does hit. Dead, broken, weakened, or damaged branches can cause severe damage to property and people when they come crashing down from high winds or heavy rain. If trees and shrubs are regularly pruned, much of this damage can be avoided.

Protecting Plants in Severe Weather

If you are in an area of high winds or frequent storms, you should stake small and young trees. There are many different kinds of tree stake kits available. Trees should be staked somewhat loosely so they are allowed to sway in the wind slightly. If they are staked too tightly, wind can cause the tree to snap right in half. To prevent severe weather damage to plants, like arborvitae or yews, tie up interior branches with pantyhose so they do not flatten or split in the middle under heavy wind and rain. Small plants that tend to flatten in wind and rain, like peonies, can be covered with a 5-gallon (19 L.) bucket or another sturdy container. Just be sure to weigh this container down with a brick or a boulder to ensure that it doesn’t fly off in the high wind and remove the container immediately after the threat of severe weather has passed. After a storm, assess any plant damage so you know how to properly prepare for the next storm. Preparation is the key to preventing thunderstorm plant damage.

When winter weather gets wild and windy, trees can suffer. If a tornado hits your area once warmer weather returns, you may see extensive damage to your plants and garden, even if your house is spared. Tornado damage in gardens can be devastating. It can appear that all of your plants are lost. With a little effort, though, some wind damaged plants may survive. Read on to learn how to save plants after a tornado.

Assessing Wind Damaged Plants

Following a huge windstorm or a tornado, your first step will be to assess the damage to your trees. Although garden plants may also be damaged, assess damaged trees and large shrubs first since broken limbs may be dangerous. Helping plants after a tornado is second to your family’s safety. So assess whether tornado plant damage to trees and shrubs have created risks to your home or family.

Evaluate broken trunks and split branches to see if they are threatening a structure or a power line. If so, remove them as quickly as possible. If the job is too large for you to handle, call in for emergency tree removal assistance.

If tree trunks or huge branches are broken, the tree or shrub may not be salvageable. The bigger the tornado plant damage to a tree, the lower its chances of recovery. A tree or shrub that holds onto half of its branches and leaves may very well recover.

After you have removed garden trees that cannot be saved, you can review the other tornado damage in gardens. It’s time to learn how to save plants after a tornado.

Trees and shrubs that can be saved will need help. Prune off hanging branches or broken branch tips, making the cuts just above branch buds. Bolt together main trunk sections that are split. For tornado damage in gardens to smaller plants, the process is quite similar. Inspect wind damaged plants, keeping an eye out for broken stems and branches.

How to save plants after a tornado? You’ll want to prune off the damaged sections of stems and branches. That doesn’t apply with equal force to leaves, however. When it comes to shredded leaves, allow as many to remain as you can since they’ll be needed for photosynthesis.

As you plan that new addition, rebuilt garage or any other building project, it is important to plan how to protect plants during construction. Trees and other plants can have damage occur due to root injury, heavy machinery compaction, slope changes, and many other potential by-products of changing topography. Protecting plants during construction is as important as planning with your architect or contractor, if you hope to preserve your landscape and minimize harm to all forms of life on your property. Start with a few of our cues and tips to shield the wild and ornamental flora in your garden.

Effects of Home Construction and Gardens

Every plant in the garden has the potential to become injured during construction. While plants becoming trampled or simply being run over are obvious causes, roots, stems and branches of trees are also at risk. Simply allowing the construction crew to run rough shod over the property can cause any amount of damage and even plant death. Avoiding construction damage to plants ensures continued ecosystem balance and preserves the appearance of the property. Many simple methods can help make home construction and gardens complement each other instead of cause destruction. New home construction is one of the more damaging to existing plants. Large machinery is needed to excavate a foundation or basement and roads need to be built and established to accommodate vehicles. Piles of soil placed over plant roots can limit their ability to get water, nutrients and air. Reducing trees on a lot to provide for construction space exposes the remaining plants to winds while they are also jarred by heavy vibrations from machinery. Often, construction crews randomly prune trees to help them get the machinery into a site, which can cause weak plants and unstable canopies. The off gases and chemicals used in many construction projects can also affect plant health. Simply bulldozing over a site smashes plants, uproots flora and rips out entire bushes and shrubs.

How to Protect Plants during Construction

Pruning correctly and precisely can protect many plants. This may extend to more than removing woody material and may include root pruning. Often, an arborist is needed to perform initial maintenance correctly. In some cases, the entire tree or plant needs to be temporarily moved to protect it from machinery and provide a clear path for workers. Smaller plants can often be dug up and the roots wrapped in burlap that is kept moist for many weeks. Larger plants may require professional help and should be heeled into prepared soil until reinstallation. For larger specimens, it is often better to plan around the plant or put up fencing and clearly marked posts. This simple method can help in avoiding construction damage to plants without the necessity of moving and reinstalling them. Sometimes, it is as simple as tying back vines and errant branches that might be exposed to damage. Vines that self-attach should be cut back, as they won't reattach once the sticky "fingers" are removed. Don't worry, vigorous vines like English Ivy, Creeping Fig and Boston Ivy will quickly reestablish themselves when construction is over. Protecting plants during construction may also be accomplished by covering them. This can prevent chemicals, tar, paint and other common but toxic construction materials from contacting the plant. Sheets or other lightweight cloth are sufficient and allow some light and air to enter. In the case of delicate plants, make a scaffold around the specimen to prevent the cloth from crushing foliage and stems. In all cases, remember to water during construction, especially plants that have been moved or are in danger of other stresses.

Frost can spell serious damage to tender plants. Epecially if you live in an area where frosts are uncommon, frost poses a real threat to plants that are used to temperatures above freezing. Even if your climate experiences cold winters, a single frost can come late in the spring or early in the fall to kill your tender plants well before their time. Keep reading to learn more about protecting plants from frost.

How to Protect Plants from Frost

Keeping plants safe in frost means being vigilant about the weather. It’s always a good idea to stay as up to date as you can on current conditions in your area, which will give you the heads up as to when frost may be expected. The best frost plant protection methods are dependent on the length of time cold temps will remain, how low they will go and, of course, the types of plants you have.

These are tips to protect plants from frost if temperatures are projected to dip below 32 F. (0 C.) at night, but not much lower. They’re short-term safety measures that give your plants a few extra degrees to make it through the night, not winter-long plans. That being said, they can be quite effective for shorter periods of time.

• Water thoroughly. Wet soil retains warmth better than dry soil. You can also spray leaves with an anti-transpirant to prevent harmful winter loss of moisture.
• Cover with breathable material. Sheets, blankets, and towels thrown over the tops of plants can help them retain heat. If you cover your plants with plastic, hold it up with stakes - any parts of the plant that touch the plastic will be frosted.
• Hang lights in trees and bigger plants. A 100-watt bulb or a string of Christmas lights will radiate heat through the plant. Make sure your bulbs are outdoor safe, and not LED (LED does not give off heat).
• Move container plants. Cluster them close together to store heat better. Place them against the wall of a building, preferably a south- or west-facing one that will hold the heat of the day longer. Alternatively, you can bring them all the way indoors for the night.
• Wrap younger trees. Wrap the trunks of less mature trees in blankets or burlap to help retain heat.

Nothing is guaranteed for keeping plants safe in frost, especially if the temperature falls lower than anticipated. If it’s autumn, pick everything ripe the day before the frost, just in case.

On an early spring night, I was sitting in my home chatting with a neighbor who had stopped by. For several weeks, our Wisconsin weather had fluctuated dramatically between snow storms, heavy rains, extremely cold temperatures, and ice storms. That night we were experiencing a pretty nasty ice storm and my thoughtful neighbor had salted my sidewalk and driveway as well as his own, so I invited him in to warm up with a cup of hot chocolate. Suddenly, there was a loud cracking, then crashing noise outside. As we opened my door to investigate, we realized we couldn't open the door wide enough to get out because a very large limb of the old silver maple in my front yard had come down just inches from my door and home. I was all too aware that if these tree branches had fallen in just a slightly different direction, it would have crashed right through my son’s bedroom upstairs. We had gotten very lucky, ice damage on large trees can cause severe damage to homes, cars, and power lines. It can also damage plants. Read on to learn more about caring for plants after an ice storm.

Ice Covered Trees and Shrubs

Ice covered trees and shrubs is just a normal part of winter for many of us in cooler climates. When winter temperatures stay consistently cold, ice on plants is not usually something to worry about. Most ice damage to trees and shrubs occurs when there is extreme fluctuations in the weather. Repetitive freezing and thawing often cause frost cracks in the trunks of trees. Frost cracks in maple trees are quite common and usually do not harm the tree. These cracks and wounds usually heal on their own. Using pruning sealer, paint, or tar to cover wounds on trees actually just slows down the trees natural healing process and is not recommended. Quick growing, softer wood trees like elm, birch, poplar, silver maple, and willows can be damaged by the extra weight of ice after an ice storm. Trees that have two central leaders that join in a V-shaped crotch, oftentimes will split down the middle from heavy snow, ice, or wind from winter storms. When shopping for a new tree, try to purchase medium hardwood trees with one single central leader growing up from the middle. Juniper, arborvitae, yews, and other dense shrubs can also be damaged by ice storms. Many times, heavy ice or snow will split dense shrubs down the middle, leaving them looking bare in the middle with growth in a donut shape around the shrubs. Tall arborvitaes can arch right over towards the ground from heavy ice, and even snap in half from the weight.

Dealing With Ice on Plants

After an ice storm, it's a good idea to inspect your trees and shrubs for damage. If you see damage, arborists suggest a 50/50 rule. If less than 50% of the tree or shrub is damaged, you may be able to save the plant. If more than 50% is damaged, it’s probably time to plan for the plant’s removal and research sturdier varieties as a replacement. If a tree damaged by ice is near any power lines, contact your utility company immediately to deal with it. If a large, older tree is damaged, it is best to get a certified arborist to do any corrective pruning and repairs. If ice damaged trees or shrubs are small, you can do corrective pruning yourself. Always use clean, sharp pruners to cut damaged branches off as close to the base as possible. When pruning, never remove more than 1/3 of the tree or shrub branches. Prevention is always the best course of action. Try not to purchase weak, softwood trees and shrubs. In the fall, use pantyhose to tie shrub branches up to each other to prevent the shrubs from splitting. Whenever possible, brush off large deposits of snow and ice from smaller trees and shrubs. Shaking off tree branches covered in icicles can cause personal injury though, so use caution.

We all dream of a lush green garden or flower beds. Unfortunately, sometimes nature does not always comply with this dream. It can start with just a few leaves dropping off a plant or two, then the next thing you know, you’re looking at nothing but bare branches and stems in your garden. There can be many reasons for this defoliation of plants. Read on to learn what causes defoliation and the effects of defoliation in the garden.

What Causes Defoliation?

Defoliation is defined as a widespread loss of leaves or stripping of leaves on a plant. There are many things that can cause this, such as grazing animals like deer or rabbits, insect infestation, disease, or chemical runoff from herbicides. If your plant is suddenly losing all its leaves, you should check it over thoroughly. Look for signs of chewing from animals or insects as well as signs of disease like spots, blisters, mildews, and molds. Also, think about any chemical treatment that has been done near the plant. If the plant losing its leaves is a tree, you may want to call a certified arborist to diagnose it.

Effects of Defoliation

Plants have most of their photosynthesis cells in their leaves. Therefore, defoliated plants are not able to convert sunlight into energy. The effects of defoliation can cause stunted or malformed plants and even death to the plant. Woody plants can often tolerate defoliation better because they store reserve energy in their trunks and branches; however, repeated defoliation can lead to their demise as well.

Treating Defoliated Plants in the Garden

After inspecting your defoliated plants, you may have a good idea of what is causing the lack of leaves. If you suspect it is animal damage, there are animal deterrent products you can try. I make a homemade rabbit deterrent by boiling garlic, onions, cloves, cinnamon, crushed red pepper, and marigolds in water. I then strain this mixture and spray the infused water all around areas where rabbits seem to frequent. This homemade remedy, like store-bought products, works for a while but needs to be reapplied. In cases where animals have killed the entire plant or just won't leave it alone, you may need to replace the plant with a deer-resistant plant. If you see insects eating the foliage off your plants, select the proper insecticide for the insect you are seeing. Be sure to thoroughly spray the plant, getting the undersides of any remaining leaves. Some insecticides are systemic, meaning you can just water them in at the plant base and the plant will suck them up, protecting the whole plant from the inside out. Disease is a harder cause of defoliation to diagnose. Usually, you will see brown or black spots, streaking on the stems, deformed leaves or stems, or a powdery or fuzzy substance on the plant. Try copper fungicide to treat the disease. There are also products for ornamental shrubs that have insecticide and fungicide in one product.

Strong winds can damage or kill landscape plants. Dealing with wind damage promptly and properly can improve a plant’s chances of survival, and in many cases, the plant will recover its former graceful glory. Find out about preventing and treating wind damage to plants and trees in this article.

How to Fix Wind Damaged Plants

Garden plants whipped by strong winds often develop torn leaves and broken stems. Prompt pruning helps prevent diseases that enter through ragged breaks and gives the plant a chance to regrow. Snip broken stems below the damage and remove tattered leaves by pinching. When you tackle these tasks right away, the plant recovers quickly and more completely. Trees and woody shrubs with broken branches need special attention. Remove damaged twigs and side shoots back to the main branch. You can shorten main branches to just above a side branch, but shortened branches will never grow any longer. If the remaining branch isn’t long enough to add a graceful shape and character to the tree, it’s best to remove it. Cut the branch back to the collar, or the thickened area next to the trunk.

Preventing Damage from Wind

Plants with a constant stream of wind blowing over them may develop wilted leaves and brown edges from desiccation. The plants may need water, but chances are good that the wind is simply drying the leaves faster than the roots can pull water from the soil. These plants need the protection of a fence or wind tolerant shrubs. Plan your protective barrier carefully to make sure that you block as much wind as possible without casting too much shade. When it comes to trees, pruning is an effective method of preventing damage from the wind. Here are three proven pruning techniques:

• Thin the canopy of the tree so that the wind passes through instead of pushing against the tree. You can accomplish this by removing some of the main branches.
• Raise the crown by removing lower branches.
• Lower the crown by shortening upright branches.

In addition to these methods of reducing the size and density of the crown, remember that branches with a tight crotch angle are more easily broken during periods of strong wind than those with wider angles. Anytime you can anticipate a point of damage, you can prevent property damage and save a tree by taking steps to eliminate the problem.

Does weather affect plant growth? It sure does! It’s easy to tell when a plant has been nipped by frost, but high temperatures can be every bit as harmful. However, there is a considerable disparity when it comes to temperature stress in plants. Some plants wilt when the mercury begins to climb, while others are at their best in extremes that would leave weaker plants begging for mercy.

How Does Temperature Affect Plant Growth?

High temperatures affect plant growth in numerous ways. The most obvious are the effects of heat on photosynthesis, in which plants use carbon dioxide to produce oxygen, and respiration, an opposite process in which plants use oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. Experts at Colorado State University Extension explain that both processes increase when temperatures rise. However, when temperatures reach uncomfortably high limits (which depends on the plant), the two processes become unbalanced. Tomatoes, for example, get into trouble when temperatures exceed about 96 degrees F. (36 C.). The effect of temperature on plants vary widely, and is influenced by factors such as exposure to sunlight, moisture drainage, elevation, difference between day and night temperatures, and proximity to surrounding rock structure (thermal heat mass).

Does Temperature Affect Seed Growth?

Germination is a miraculous event that involves a number of factors that include air, water, light, and, of course, temperature. Germination increases in higher temperatures – up to a point. Once the seeds reach optimum temperatures, which depends on the plant, germination begins to decline. Some plant seeds, including cool season vegetables like lettuce and broccoli, germinate best in temperatures between 55 and 70 degrees F. (13-21 C.), while warm season plants such as squash and marigolds, germinate best when temperatures are between 70 and 85 degrees F. (21-30 C.). So whether it’s extreme heat or cold, temperature does affect plants and their growth. This is one of the reasons why it’s important to check a plant’s hardiness and see if it is compatible to your particular growing zone. Of course, where Mother Nature is concerned, even when grown in optimal conditions, you cannot control the weather.

All living things need some sort of protection to keep them comfortable during the winter months and plants are no exception. A layer of mulch is often enough to protect plant roots, and in more northern climates, Mother Nature provides a layer of snow, which serves as a great winter covering for plants. However, many plants depend on a little extra protection to survive until spring. Read on to learn about covering plants in cold weather.

Is Covering Plants in Cold Weather Really Necessary?

Frost covering for many plants is of limited use, and the best way to protect plants, according to horticulturalists at University of Georgia Extension, is to ensure your plants are properly watered, fed and protected from pests during the spring and summer. Healthy plants are hardier and can withstand cold weather better than weak, unhealthy plants. Most importantly, plan carefully and choose plants that can survive in your growing zone. If you use plant covering materials, use them only during the cold spell and remove them as soon as the weather moderates. Young evergreens can suffer sunscald for the first two to five winters. A light-colored winter covering will reflect the light and keep the bark at a relatively consistent temperature. Be sure to water evergreens deeply before the ground freezes, as evergreens are unable to replace moisture lost to winter wind and sun.

Types of Winter Covering for Plants

Here are the most common plant coverings for protecting plants in cold weather or frosts.

• Burlap – This natural fiber is an effective winter cover for marginally hardy plants and works well as protection for young shrubs and trees. Wrap the burlap loosely around the plant, or better yet – create a simple tepee of stakes, then drape the burlap around the stakes and secure it with twine. This will prevent breakage that can occur when burlap becomes wet and heavy.
• Plastic – Plastic is definitely not the best winter covering for plants, as plastic, which doesn’t breathe, can trap moisture that can kill the plant in a freeze. You can use plastic in a pinch, however (even a plastic garbage bag), but remove the covering first thing in the morning. If a sudden cold snap is predicted, an old sheet or a layer of newspapers offers safer protection than plastic, which can do more harm than good.
• Polypropylene or polypropylene fleece – You can find many types of polypropylene plant covering materials at garden supply stores. The covers, often known by names such as garden fabric, all-purpose fabric, garden quilt or frost-protect, are available in various thicknesses with varying degrees of protection. Polypropylene is useful in many cases because it is lightweight, breathable, and allows a certain amount of light to enter. For large applications, it is available in rolls. It can be laid directly on the ground or wrapped around a framework made of stakes, bamboo, garden fencing, or PVC pipe.

If you see papery leaves on plants, or if you’ve noticed papery spots on leaves, you have a mystery on your hands. However, there are several possible causes when leaves are papery looking and brittle. Read on for tips to unravel this conundrum.

Why Are My Leaves Dry and Paper Like?

Below are the most common reasons for papery spots on leaves and how to fix them: Lack of moisture – Papery leaves on plants are often caused by leaf scorch. This is a distinct possibility if the crispy, dry appearance shows up on leaf tips first, then progresses to the entire leaf. This often happens during hot, dry weather when moisture evaporates before the plant can absorb it through the roots. Without moisture, the leaves are unable to cool and easily become scorched. A good soaking may restore a leaf-scorched plant if the damage isn’t too severe. Excessive moisture – Leaf scorch can also be attributed to too much moisture. This occurs when the soil is so wet that the roots are deprived of oxygen. As the roots smother, the leaves turn dry and papery, and the plant eventually dies. If a plant is affected by root rot, the stem will generally display a rotted, waterlogged appearance. Root rot is nearly always fatal. To prevent rot, locate plants in well-drained soil and allow the soil to dry slightly between each watering. Powdery Mildew – This fungal disease can cause leaves to take on a dry, blotchy, scorched appearance, often with a powdery white leaf surface. It often shows up when conditions are warm and humid. If the problem affects only a few leaves, just remove the leaves and dispose of them properly because powdery mildew is highly contagious. Allow adequate space between plants to provide air circulation. Don’t overwater and avoid over-fertilization. Fungicides are sometimes helpful if they are applied early. Excessive fertilizer – When leaves are dry and paper like, excessive fertilizer may be to blame; too much can scorch the roots and burn the plant. Read the container carefully and apply fertilizer as directed. Many plants perform better with a dilute formula, and most require no fertilizer during the winter months. Water quality – Many indoor plants are sensitive to chlorine and minerals in the water. This is a common reason for brown, papery spots on leaves, and may cause the leaves to turn brown and fall off the plant. To avoid this problem, don’t use water straight from the tap. Instead, use bottled water or let water sit overnight so the chlorine and minerals have time to dissipate. Similarly, cold water affects many plants adversely. Most plants prefer room temperature water.

Phytotoxicity in plants can rise from a number of factors. What is phytotoxicity? It is anything chemical which causes an adverse reaction. As such, it can stem from pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and other chemical formulations. The plant’s response varies from discolored leaves all the way to death. The sensitivity can go both ways, however, since some plants are phototoxic to humans and can cause injury.

What is Phytotoxicity?

Phytotoxicity in plants usually occurs in those that are overly sensitive to chemicals. It can also occur when tank mixed chemicals are applied in hot weather or when an adjuvant or solvent is added to the tank mixture. Stressed plants are also more prone to sensitivity than those that are well watered and healthy. Phytotoxicity can exist as a response to an external condition or as a defense to an external condition.

• As a response, it is manifested when chemicals contact the plant and cause it to become ill or damaged.
• As a defense, the plant releases its own chemicals, which can make the intruder or predator ill, known as phototoxicity.

This dual effect is not found in all plants but some are more sensitive to chemicals than others. For instance, ferns, palms, English ivy, and poinsettias are all extremely sensitive to chemicals. Still other plants are sensitive to only certain chemicals.

Phytotoxicity Symptoms in Plants

Plants that are phytotoxic in the sense that they are sensitive to chemicals often have specific formulas to which they are vulnerable. Stone fruits have a problem with copper, which is a component of Bordeaux mix, often applied to combat fungal diseases. It causes russeting in apples and can stunt the leaves. Copper also causes issues in cucurbit crops. Zinc sulfate has the potential to defoliate fruit trees. Sulfur causes burns on roses, some ornamental plants and cucurbit crops. Insecticides and herbicides that are mixed improperly, applied at the incorrect rate or have been mixed in a contaminated container can do a range of damage to many different plants.

Plants That are Phototoxic to Humans

Plants may release chemicals of their own as defense. These chemicals can harm humans. Usually, the phototoxicity symptoms will be topical. Wild parsnip looks very much like its cultivated cousin but has phototoxicity which can cause burns. Contact with the plant and then subsequent exposure to the sun will cause a fiery sting in the contact area. Mayapples have a similar defense mechanism and should not be touched. All parts of this plant are poisonous. Even common garden plants can have mild phototoxicity and should be handled carefully. Wash your hands after handling or harvesting any of the following (wearing gloves is helpful too):

• Dill
• Celery
• Carrots
• Coriander
• Angelica
• Rue
• Parsley
• Anise
• Fennel
• Lovage

Treatment for Phototoxicity

If you come in contact with a phototoxic plant, wash the area and apply a topical cream such as cortisone or a paste of baking soda and water. Plants that experience phytotoxic symptoms should be rinsed off but usually the damage has already been done. To minimize the risk, always follow directions and apply chemicals on a cool, cloudy day. Use less toxic options like baking soda, phosphate salts, horticultural oils and soaps, and beneficial bacteria or insects. Treatment for phytotoxicity in a small area of a plant may involve simply lopping off the stem to prevent the damage from interfering with the rest of the plant. Providing adequate water and good general care will usually rally the plant over time and reduce the chance of permanent injury.

Winter is a tough season for plants everywhere, but it's hardest where the temperatures are below freezing, and drying winds are common. When evergreens and perennials are subjected to these conditions, they often end up with browning leaves, either immediately following a drying event or months later. Desiccation damage in winter is an all-too-common problem that can lead to the death of formerly healthy plants.

What is Desiccation?

Desiccation, in a broad sense, is what happens when a great deal of moisture is removed from a substance. Whether that substance is a gas or a solid, it's the same process. When we talk about desiccation in plants, we're specifically referring to the transfer of excessive amounts of water from leaves and into the atmosphere. As a part of their normal respiratory functions, plants tend to release some moisture, but it's usually not a problem since they're also bringing in new fluids from their roots at the same time. Winter desiccation happens when one of two situations is present. In one, the plant is rooted in frozen ground, but is trying to continue its metabolic processes anyway. In the other, there's an external force removing more moisture than the plant would normally release, like a very dry wind. The first scenario is a lot easier to manage than the second, but both are treated similarly.

Treating Desiccation Damage

Once your plant is damaged by desiccation, there's no going back-- those brown tissues are just dead. However, you can take steps to protect your plant from further damage throughout the year. Even though winter desiccation is the most dramatic, plants are at risk of desiccation all year long. Since desiccation is most common in newly transplanted trees and shrubs, or those that aren't well, it pays to spend some extra time and care on these plants. Start by putting them on a watering schedule. Although they might not need water every week, make sure you're giving plenty of water between rainstorms. The exact amount will depend on the size of your plant and its watering requirements, but lawn irrigation won't be enough. Bigger plants need much more water-- in the neighborhood of several inches (8 cm.) every week. Keep this up as long as you can, watering until the ground is frozen. A properly hydrated tree or shrub is going to be able to hold out a lot longer against desiccating winds due to their extra supply of water. To help your plants hold on to the water you give them, mulch the root zones with 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm.) of organic mulch. For trees and large shrubs, these mulched zones may spread several feet (1 m.) away from the plant itself. Make sure to refresh your mulch yearly, at least until the plant is established. This process takes about five years, depending on the type of tree or shrub you're growing.